Alvar's Response to Religious Pluralism
RESPONSE TO RELIGIOUS PLURALISM IN THE
BHAKTI TRADITION OF ĀLVĀRS
Introduction
Bhakti was the launching pad for the Alvars. Tamil classical
principle akam provided them a mode
of expression for their spiritual experience.
The general characteristics of Alvars,
their life-stories, works and religious attitudes are concrete backgrounds to
study the response of Alvars to
religious pluralism. It is also essential to remember that the immediate
successors of Älvärs were the Ācāryas who were essentially inspired by
the Alvars. At the same time, the Ācāryas remained faithful to the Vedic tradition.
It is appropriate to trace the response of Cańkam age to religious pluralism, before
considering the response to religious pluralism in the bhakti tradition of Alvars
because it had influenced their religious orientation. Response to religious
pluralism in the bhakti tradition of Alvars may be analyzed under two
parts. One is the theoretical framework
available in the writings of the Alvars
and the other is the relevant insights for a contemporary Christian theology of
religions.
6.1 Response to
Religious Pluralism
The expression ‘response to religious pluralism’ is used
to denote the degree of relation between Alvars
and other religious traditions. It is
therefore, confined to the realm of religions.
There are multiple reasons to analyze the response to religious
pluralism as reflected in the bhakti
tradition of Alvars. One of the reasons is their context. During the time of Alvars there was growing religious mobility. The whole world witnessed the origin and
developments of many religious traditions.
It was the time the two non-Vedic religions-Buddhism and Jainism were
flourishing. These two religions began
to affect other religions, which already existed in south India. Their popularity was due to the patronage of
various emperors. M. S. Purnalingam Pillai states the impact of their influence
as “the predominance of Buddhism and Jainism in the Tamil land and the frequent
conversions of Saivas and Vaishnavas to them filled the other Hindu
religionists with horror.”[1]
As these two religions began to grow fast, the Hindus
(Vaisnavas and Śaivas etc.) were
alarmed that they might lose their number.
It was the time the Aryan influence dominated the native Indians. It needs to be remembered that Jainism and
Buddhism emerged as protest against the Aryan religious practices. There are scholars who would suggest that
these two religions are not protest movements against Aryan religion, but
offshoots of Sramana movement. The fact
remains that the Sramanas were indigenous ascetics, who always voiced against
the Vedic practices.
The context witnessed not only the growth of these two
religious. There was rivalry between the
Vaisnavites and Śaivites. K. A.
Nilakanta Sastri summarized the context as, “the growth, on the one hand, of an
intense emotional bhakti to Siva or
Vishnu and on the other, of an outspoken hatred of Buddhists and Jains are the
chief characteristics of the new epoch.”[2] Hence the general scenario was marked by the
struggle among Buddhism, Jainism Vaisnavism and Śaivism.
Another remarkable characteristic of this context was
that the Aryan religion had already influenced the Tamil religious
practices. New myths were created to
demonstrate that the Tamil deities were the manifestations of the Aryan
deities. There is sufficient reason to
hold that Tamilnadu witnessed the era of unfriendly relation between religions
because of the Aryan influence and their tendency to grade religions.
This specific context has lots of parlance with the
present situation in India. Many, for
political gains, in the name of the majority Hindus losing the number,
manipulate the religiously sensitive Indian context. This has created indescribable difficulties
among the people of diverse religious traditions. This has caused a rift between religions and
people. Hostility, antagonism and
unfriendly relations hamper the friendly co-existence of the people of India.
Of course, the situation of the Alvars was a little different in that the rulers determined the
general religious context. At the same
time the Alvars also never failed to
utilize the royal support to establish their own claims. Even some Alvars
caused inconvenience to others in the name of religion.
6.2 Diverse
Perspectives
Plurality is the essence of the life of the Alvars and their works. The twelve Alvars represent variety of perspectives. It was cautioned earlier that, one should not
look for a specific worldview in the works of Alvars. At the same time
whatever one is looking for also can be found in their works. This is the general outlook of the works of Alvars, which is an encouraging
phenomenon for a relevant Christian theology of religions in a multi religious
context.
As the Tiruvāymoli takes
the representative role for all the works of Alvars, it is said that it allows readers to compose it in various
ways; for there is no insurmountable obstacle to various favored creative
responses.[3] To be specific, all the Alvars did not use the same standard or judgment with regard to
other religions. Often the same Ālvār
maintained diverse viewpoints towards other peoples and religions. As there are opportunities for multiple
perspectives in the bhakti tradition
of Alvars it shall be legitimate to
choose the relevant and viable one for a relevant contemporary theology of
religions. Every religion practices
varieties of approaches towards other faiths.
No religion goes by a single perspective. It is the duty of the interpreters
(especially theologians) to indicate a relevant perspective in accordance with
the context and need of the people (society). This is where the
historical-textual method is very relevant. It will not be unjustified, taking
the present context into serious consideration, if one looks for pertinent
point of view in the works of Alvars,
although they are seemingly exclusive and developed in the context of rising
religious mobility.
6.3 The Perspective
of Cańkam Epoch
It is appropriate to consider the religious situation
that prevailed during the Cańkam age,
before attempting to analyze the response of Alvars to religious pluralism as reflected in their works because
the former epoch preceded the latter.
The general notion about the Cańkam era was that there was religious tolerance. The Cańkam
Tamils were not aggressive in the matters of religion. During this period, along with the other
sects, Buddhism and Jainism flourished.
The Cańkam period is dated
between third century B.C. and third century A.D. It was the time of the reign of Chera, Chola
and Pandya rulers. Shu Hikosaka remarked
that, “during this period, the Tamils were mostly interested in secular things
rather than religious matters.”[4] In the words of P.T. Srinivasa Aiyangar,
“they did not indulge in dark cogitations about the evils of earthly existence
and seek for means to abolish the present joys of life for securing a future
state of unchanging bliss.”[5] In short, they were committed to the open
realities of this world.
It does not mean that the Cańkam Tamils were not affected by the presence of other
religions. It simply means that they
were very keen on the day-to-day affairs of life including religion. But bargaining for religious claims was not
their chief concern. It is said about
the Cańkam era that “it reveals to us
a secular minded people engaged in the battle of life in all its aspects
refusing to yield to religious fanaticism.”[6]
Like the latter period Cańkam epoch
witnessed the growth of Jainism and Buddhism along with the other local religions
and sects. The Patthuppattu or ten idylls is one of the Cańkam literatures. Its sixth
idyll is called Madurai Kanchi. It bears testimony to the existence of
Buddhism and Jainism. M.
S. Purnalingam Pillai writes about it that, “in the graphic description of the
city life, we come across Buddhistic monasteries and Jain shrines in their
flourishing condition with hosts of worshippers attached to each…”[7]
The religious attitude of this epoch is marked by
tolerance and harmony. The ninth idyll
of Patthuppatu is called Pattinap-Palai. In it “…we come across Buddhist monasteries
and Jain abbeys in the land of Chola.
Which show not only the prevalence of other religions but the religious
toleration of the kings of old in South India.”[8] It is important because the attitude of the
kings will represent the attitude of the subjects.
The situation is plainly presented in another Cańkam literature. It is said “a sense of toleration was the
significant feature in the religious climate as noticed in Paripātal.”[9] This is one of the eight anthologies. A more
detailed description is that “Cilappatikāram, the earliest extant Tamil epic
(300 A.D.), projects a panorama of various faiths and religious practices
prevalent perhaps at the end of Sangam period, breathing the spirit of
religious toleration.”[10] In other words religious tolerance was taken
for granted and practiced naturally.[11]
To mark the salient religious attitude of this epoch and
to distinguish it from the succeeding era V. D. Mahajan says “among the Tamils
in the Samgam age, religion played a milder and more harmonious role in society
than it did in the succeeding ages after the seventh century A.D.”[12] To summarize, the Cańkam people were secular in outlook. They never yielded to religious
fanaticism. They witnessed the growth of
alien religions. Their attitude towards
other religions was adorned with tolerance and harmony. With this background, it is fitting to analyze
the response to religious pluralism in the bhakti
tradition of Alvars.
6.4 Ālvārs’ Response
to Religious Pluralism
In contrast to the Cańkam
era, the Alvars epoch was marked by
the conscious attempt to establish the supremacy of Visnu and Vaisnavism. This may be examined from two
dimensions. One is to find out the
response of Alvars to religious
pluralism and the other is to explore relevant insights for a contemporary
theology of religions from the bhakti
tradition of Alvars. The first may be considered under the modern
captions – exclusivist response, inclusive response, relativist response and
‘one-many’ response. The second consists
of the need for spiritual foundation, life concerns, exclusion of caste
differences, emancipation of women, inevitability of ecological sensitivity,
language of the people and inclusive language.
6.4.1 Exclusivist
Response
All
the twelve Alvars exclusively
maintained the pre-eminence of Visnu and Vaisnavism over the other religions,
gods and people. It is their basic
religious right. If one ceases to be
completely devoted to his or her religion, he or she becomes irreligious. Exclusive response is the result of one’s
deep commitment to the religion of which he or she is a member. There is nothing wrong in being committed to
a particular religion, provided one is mindful that others also have similar
obligation in relation to their religions. The particularistic response turns
to be extreme when people do not respect the specific sentiments of others.
The Alvars were exclusivist, at the out set. Their sole concern was the one ultimate
Reality (paratattva), beyond time and
space, whom they called Visnu.[13] The exclusive claims of Tirumaliśai is
described as, he searched for truth in Buddhism, Jainism, Cārvaka philosophy,
examined six orthodox systems and also that of Kudrsti (which must refer to
that of Advaita) and the Śaiva schools of religion.[14] They did not satisfy him. Thus finally settled down as a Vaisnava Yogi.[15] At the end he established that Nārāyana is
the supreme deity (paratatva).[16] It is also said that the Ālvār preached that the one and only God was Visnu while the other
two of the triad – Brahmā and Śiva – were created by him.[17]
Regarding Periyālvār it is said he won a
religious disputation in the court of the Pāndya king Śrimāra Śrivallabha
(815–862).[18] The disputation was to prove who really was
the supreme deity. Tradition holds that,
Periyālvār proved with references from the Vedas that Visnu was the ultimate
Reality.
This can be further
substantiated with a few internal references. Tirumangai Ālvār in his Tirukkuruntāndakam
says those who do not count Visnu’s auspicious qualities only waste their
precious lives.[19] According to Pānālvār after seeing my lord of
nectar-delight, my eyes will see none else.[20] Periyālvār writes, we shall not admit into
our fold those who are slaves of the palate.[21] Tirumaliśai Ālvār asks, will I regard another deity?[22] Tondaradippodi questions, can there be
another God?[23] Tirumangai Ālvār vows that, I have nothing to do with those who take to other
gods.[24] Again, those who do not worship his feet and
keep him in their hearts are no men,[25]
those who do not contemplate the dark-hued radiant lord and protector are
indeed lowly,[26]
those who do not hear of him have no ears at all,[27]
those who do not worship him and speak about him do not speak at all,[28]
songs which do not sing his praise with love are no songs at all,[29]
those who do not fold their hands in worship have no hands,[30]
those who do not contemplate and realize him are forever ignorant,[31]
and those who do not become his devotees are no men.[32]
These are few examples to prove that the Alvars
were exclusivists in their response to other religions. But this exclusive assertion was expressed in
different degrees.
6.4.1.1 Tolerant and
Peaceful Response
The first three Alvars were no exception from their particularistic stand. All scholars agree that, these three Alvars lived at a time when the
sectarian creeds were not developed.
They would not have witnessed alien faiths in full vigor. But the writings of the Alvars reveal that, they established the ascendancy of Visnu in a
tolerant way. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri
maintained that they were altogether free from an intolerant sectarian outlook.[33]
Even their response towards the
Śaivaites was liberal. It is said “a
spirit of tolerance is evident in the poems of these early Ālvārs; probably there were forms of image where one half was Siva
and the other half Visnu.”[34] There are no references to Jains and
Buddhists in their work. It may be
because these religions did not come of maturity. Another reason may be that the Aryan influence
was not yet complete. One more reason
may be that these Alvars lived very
close to Cańkam age, thus they
reflected the religious attitude of the Cańkam
Tamils.
Nammālvār maintains the absolute claim
in a more elegant form. The general
opinion about Nammālvār was that he lived at a time the land was free from any
alien religious influence. The Śaivas
and Vaisnavites lived in peace.
Nevertheless, to establish the claim that Visnu was the only ultimate
Reality, he criticized all the then existed religious sects and deities. But, at the same time his poems bear no marks
of persecution or invectives against the Jains and Buddhists.[35] It is true that Nammālvār occupies a special
place among Ālvārs. His works are credited with respect equal to
the Vedas.
Modern scholars have testified that
Nammālvār’s works are great examples for variety of religious experiences. Hence reducing Nammālvār to a specific strand
would devalue his contributions. It,
therefore, may not be wrong to hold that he does not support smug religious
sectarianism.[36]
The tolerant and peaceful expression
of exclusive claim is not harmful. It is
the right of any committed religionist.
Unless one subscribes to this deep conviction, he or she ceases to be
faithful to his or her own religion. The
tolerant and peaceful expression of exclusive response paves the way for
further creative and positive relationship between religions in a more
constructive and respectful way. The
same exclusive approach is often expressed in a violent way.
6.4.1.2
Aggressive Exclusivism
The aggressive form of exclusive claim
is dangerous and it leads to religious fanaticism. Tirumaliśai Ālvār was very belligerent in his attitude. He used strong language against other
religions and people. This is obvious
from his context. It is said perhaps the
aggressive preaching of the Jains, Buddhists and Śaivites marked his period.
The adherents of these faiths chose to assert their individual worth by casting
disparaging comments on one another.[37]
According to tradition, Tirumaliśai
proclaimed that after learning the religion of the Sakhya (Buddhism), the
religion of the Sramana (Jainism), the Agama of Sankaranar (Śaiva Agama) by
fortunate good luck we have come to rest our faith in the Black One with
red-eyes and got rid of all that is evil.[38]
This is an evidence for the narrow
outlook about the religions of others. The degree of vehemence in his
antagonistic attitude is reflected in his Anthathi.
It is said he spits his venom
against the Saivas, Jains and Buddhists.[39] This attitude is not conducive to a country
like India, which houses people of different faiths. One can maintain ultimate claim but not at
the cost of provoking and accusing the others.
Tirumaliśai’s dissatisfaction was not
confined to other religious systems alone.
He condemned the people who adhere to other traditions. In his Nānmukhan – Tiruvandādi he writes low
persons alone equate Śiva with Visnu who has no equal.[40]
In another hymn he says, Jains do not know the truth, Buddhists are confused
and Śaivas are mean and those who do not worship Tirumal who is abode of all
miraculous characters are base.[41] His life and poems represent him as a
resentful opponent of the people of other faiths.
Another Ālvār who used provocative language was Tondaradippodi. In his Tirumālai
he states, it is better to die rather than hearing the blasphemy of Jains and
Buddhists against Visnu. And if
opportunity is given to react, behead such blasphemers.[42] This is the only instance in the whole works
of Alvars, where the retaliatory and
uncharitable language is used. His
bigoted response is pointed out as “his faith in Visnu has taken so deep a root
that he became intolerant of other sects.”[43]
This is a destructive practice. Often this coarse attitude is found among
many extreme communalists in India. They
even hold that all who do not follow the majority religion of India should
leave the country and go to their own.
Otherwise, they be treated as secondary citizens. This attitude is a threat to communal
harmony, friendly co-existence of people of other faiths and co-operation
between diverse religious communities for common human causes.
Periyālvār expresses similar response
with lesser intensity. In his Periyālvār Tirumoli it is stated that
those who do not think of Tirumal are hard-hearted people. They are burden to the earth. Hence snatch away the rice they eat and
thrust grass.[44] This is another crude form of cantankerous
approach.
From these descriptions it is clear
that none of the Alvars planed a
systematic tactic to oppose the onward growth of the religious sects other than
Vaisnavism. Their hostility was scarcely
expressed in their hymns. Nor they
attempted to persuade the rulers to subdue other religious traditions. Of course, there were occasions. But the rulers always maintained neutrality
with rare exemption. The unreceptive
attitude would have caused greater damage if the rulers had their hands in
it. But now things are different. To grab power, people are ready to misuse
religious sentiments of people. The
exclusive response may be further understood from the point of new converts to
Vaisnavism.
6.4.1.3
Response of the Converts
The orthodox response of the Alvars who were converts was forceful
towards other religions. One such example is Tirumalisai Ālvār. The reason for
such a state of mind is said to be his conversion from Saivism to Vaishnavism.[45] Another example is the life of Tirumańgai Ālvār, who in order to carry off and marry
the daughter of a Vaisnavite doctor of a higher caste changed his religion.[46] His robberies were justified as they were
done for the service of the devotees of Visnu.
His superciliousness was vivid when he stole a Buddha statue to
construct the outer wall of a Visnu temple.
It was astonishing to learn the story that, the workers who asked for
their wages were drowned in the Kaveri, and their relatives saw them going to
heaven.
A few points can be noted from these
accounts. The response of new converts
towards other religions was confrontational in character. It is a psychological
phenomenon. The converts wanted to
pretend at any cost that they are in a better situation than the previous one. For that, they dare to go any length. The sad part of it is, that such activities
are often spiritualized. Another aspect
is that the new converts accept new religion with so much of expectations. Until they experience their expectations or
realize the truth, they are restless.
The second incident was an example to
prove how often self-interests are religionised at the cost of several
people. An outsider cannot question the
religious significance of such incidents.
At the same time, the influence of such accounts might cause serious
consequences.
In brief, it may be said, even the Alvars who were tolerant and peaceful
towards other religions were exclusivists, in that they strove hard to
establish the supremacy of Visnu. The
first kind of response is common to all committed religious people. The other forms are dangerous. They lead to fanatic stance. The psychological and emotional outburst of
the converts is vicious in nature.
The tolerant and peaceful exclusive
attitude of the Alvars is a strong
platform to rest oneself and to proceed further. This ensuing further is the need of the
hour. If it is slow it should be
accelerated. If it is not visible,
serious efforts are necessary to bring to light their attitude of tolerance for
the good of the people at large.
6.4.2
Inclusive Response
There is also scope for an inclusive
response in the works of Alvars. It
needs to be remembered that the Alvars
were not making any systematic effort to defend their own faith or to offend
others. Their hymns are the spontaneous
outpouring of their religious experience.
Hence, more than one response can be traced in each Ālvār. It is true that there
was an exclusive response in the works of Alvars. At the same time there is also a possibility
for an inclusive reaction, which considers the religions of others as inferior
to the one a particular person adheres to.
This does not mean that they are completely wrong but it only implies
that they lack certain elements and need fulfillment. Thus, this can also be called as fulfillment approach.
The traces for such an inclusive
reaction are found in the works of first three Alvars. About their relation
to Śaivism S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar writes, “the earliest Alvars go the length
even of describing Siva and Vishnu as one, although they do recognize the
united form as Vishnu.”[47] Here the Vaisnavites are happy to hold that
Śiva and Visnu are one. At the same time
they would maintain that Visnu is that one united form.
About the transformation of Tirumaliśai
as an Ālvār it is said, Śiva gave him
the name Bhakti Sara but could not fulfill the needs and challenge of Tirumalisai.[48] It suggests that Tirumaliśai found final
fulfillment only in Visnu. In his Tiruvandādi it is stated that those who
worship Brahma, Śiva etc. feel their
emptiness and find their fullness only in Narayana.[49]
Inclusive response is reflected in the works
of Nammālvār as well. It is said
occasionally that Satakōpan simply identifies Visnu with the other gods –
particularly Śiva and Brahma…[50]
Although, he was sympathetic to the Śaivas he does not generally give the same
pedestal that the earlier Alvars do.[51] S. Satyamurthi Ayyangar points out the
fulfillment approach found in one of the hymns as, people seek favors from
minor deities and obtain them. If those deities in turn bestow the boons sought
by their votaries, to the extent deserved by them, it is only through the grace of the Supreme Lord,
(Srīman Nārāyana) who stays inside these deities (as their internal
controller) and maintains them.[52] Tirumaliśai Ālvār writes, the lord is the indweller of all forms
and beings.[53]
The inclusive response of the Alvars
is quite praise worthy for it positively regards the other religions. But it may not be forgotten that the present
Indian context is in need of more open and challenging responses towards people
of other faiths.
6.4.3
Relativist Response
Although the Alvars exclusively maintained the superiority of Visnu there were
occasional references to inclusive way of considering other religions. The predominant Indian way of considering
other religions can be called as relativist. Here all religions are attributed with same
purpose. There are rare references to
such an attitude in the bhakti
tradition of Alvars. It was only Poygai Ālvār who synthesized the name of Visnu and Śiva. For him Visnu and Śiva are the manifestations
of the one and the same Almighty.[54] It does not mean that the first three Alvars regarded the equality of all
religions. There were already traces of
exclusive claims and inclusive out look.
Regarding the Tiruccanta–Viruttam of Tirumaliśai, it is remarked that it is more
metaphysical in nature because it enumerates the categories in such a way as to
point out that everything is ultimately derived from the One.[55] There is a unique expression in the Periya Tirumoli of Tirumańgai that,
Narayana is the indweller of Śhiva, Brahma and Visnu.[56] In his Tirunedunatāndakam it is maintained
that the supreme light is one.[57]
No doubt, Nālāyiram represents
different types of responses towards other religions and sects. At the same time, a thorough reading of the
works of Alvars reveals that they
never departed from the Vedāntic principle that ultimately the reality is one.
This can be explored further. In short,
the response of Alvars towards
Śaivism is partly the combination of exclusive, inclusive and relativist
patterns. There is, still, a possibility
for a more open and relevant perspective in the bhakti tradition of Alvars.
This may be explicated further, after analyzing the response of Alvars towards Buddhism and Jainism.
In matters of relation with other
religions and sects, it needs to be remarked that, Śaivism was more aggressive
than Vaisnavism. It is generally said on
the basis of close scrutiny of the devotional literatures of the Śaivas and the
Vaisnavas that the Śaivas were definitely more aggressive and outspokenly
hostile towards their rival creeds.[58] Even from the point of rulers it was
true. The Pandiyan king Nedumaran was a
Jain. His wife converted him to Śaivism.
Stephen Neil writes, “once converted king Nedumaran is reported to have
demanded of the Jains that they also should apostatize. When they refused to do so, no less than
eight thousand were put to death by impalement.”[59] Even Ramanuja had to flee for Karnataka to
escape persecution. Even in Nālāyiram most hymns better represent the superiority struggle between
the Śaivas and the Vaisnavas than between Vaisnavas and the non-Vedic
religions.
6.5
Response Towards Jainism and Buddhism
V. P. Chavan states the main purpose
of bhakti movement in the form of Alvars and Nāyanārs as “the common enemy, in the South, the Jainism had to be
destroyed.”[60] According to B.N. Luniya it was a counter
reformation in favor of orthodox Hinduism, which had the effect of nearly
exterminating Jainism.[61]
About Buddhism it is said that the bhakti
cult in Tamilnadu caused the extinction of Buddhism in Tamilnadu.[62] Tirumańgai Ālvār crudely abused
Buddhism. In the words of Nilakanta
Sastri, “he is said to have stolen a solid golden image of Buddha from a
monastery in Nagapatam to pay for renovating the temple of Srirangam.”[63]
All these references suggest that the Alvars’
response towards Buddhism and Jainism was negative.
Both Jainism and Buddhism were put
together and said “it is thus possible that the theistic and pietistic religion
of the Saiva and Vaisnava saints of this period could have been at least partly
a reaction against the impersonal and atheistic tendencies of the two ascetic
religions.”[64]
It is said more emphatically that, Alvars
of the Vaisnava sect are the important personalities in spreading the bhakti movement with the purpose of
exterminating the heterodox systems and establishing the orthodox religion.[65] In a more direct way they sang Buddhism and
Jainism out of their province.[66]
It is also true that Tirumaliśai, Tondaradippodi and Tiurmańgai have used very
negative response towards these non-Vedic religions.
No doubt, the hymns of the Alvars have the underlying assumption
of protecting and strengthening Vaisnavaism from the onslaught of other
religions and sects. They reveal that
their main opponents were the Śaivas, Jains and Buddhists. The general opinion is that the main purpose
of the Ālvār movement was anti-Jain
and anti-Buddhistic. But it needs to be
remembered that the Ālvārs viewed
Śaivas with the same measure. According
to T. Gnanasundaram, though there existed other religions such as Jainism, it
can be said that, the real fight took place between Saivism and Vaishnavism.[67]
Out of the four thousand verses of Nālayiram only seventeen have direct reference to Buddhism and
Jainism. These verses are scattered all
through. Two are in the works of Tirumaliśai, three in the works of Nammālvār,
two in the works of Tondaradippodi and ten in the works of Tiurmańgai Ālvār.
Of these, the direct references found in the verses of Nammālvār are not
so hostile in tone. The remaining hymns
of the Nālāyiram are in praise of the
superior qualities of Tirumāl in contrast to the qualities of other gods or
simply eulogizing lord Tirumāl.
Even a reference in the Periya Tirumoli suggests that in the
temple of the Buddhas and Sramanas who worship the Nyagrodha and Asoka trees,
our lord of beautiful eyes became their gods and became them.[68]
Hence a positive and sympathetic perspective is required to analyze and admire
the relevant response of Alvars to
religious pluralism.
6.6 One-Many, a Relevant Paradigm
The expressions Śiva and Brahma are
living in the body of Tirumāl,[69]
Tirumāl has Brahma, Śiva and Indra as his body[70]
and Śiva lives in the body of Tirumāl[71]
may be interpreted as stressing the equality of gods. At the same time, there is, in the work of Ālvārs a more positive and relevant
response to people of other faiths.
According to Poygai Ālvār, Tirumāl
himself has become Visnu, Brahma and Śiva.[72] For Tirumaliśai God is one. He rewards every one irrespective of the
deity he/she worships, and he has become the many gods.[73] Tirumańgai maintains that Śiva, Brahma and
Visnu are the forms of Tirumāl.[74] He pervades the whole world in the forms of
Śiva, Brahma and Visnu.[75]
There are many references in Tiruvāymoli to suggest that, Tirumal has
become, Brahma, Visnu and Śiva.[76] Even Nammālvār’s response to Jainism and
Buddhism is milder. He writes Nārāyana
dwells in the gods of Jains and Buddhists…[77]
About the incarnation of Visnu, Shakti M. Gupta maintains that, “he
takes the designation of Brahmā, Visnu,
Śiva, accordingly as he creates, preserves and destroys.”[78]
Considering the reality as one and the different faith-traditions as diverse
response to that one reality is unique to Indian context. It is always accepted that the ‘One Ultimate
Reality’ is beyond the comprehension of all.
That is, it is a mystery.
It is said in the Rg Veda (Rgveda
1:164:46) that the truth is one but the sages call it with various names. Bhagavad Gītā [BG. IV.II] says, howsoever man
may approach me, even so do I accept them, for, on all sides, whatever path
they may choose is mine. This is the
prayer of the Upanisad [Brhadāranyaka Upanisad 1:III: 28] that, lead me from
untruth to truth, from darkness to light and from death to deathlessness.
Though the response of Alvars to religious pluralism may be
categorized as exclusive, inclusive and relativist there is scope for a
relevant paradigm to develop a contemporary theology of religions on the basis
of ‘one-many’. It goes very well with
the mystical nature of Alvars and the
mystical nature of the ultimate reality.
In the multi religious context of India the reality has to be understood
as mystery involving the struggles of people in various forms. In such understanding, the various
faith-traditions are accounted for and the spiritual nature of life and its
struggles are addressed to.
6.7 Relevance for a Contemporary Theology of Religions
Apart from the ‘one-many’ paradigm,
there are certain elements in the response to religious pluralism as seen in
the bhakti tradition of Alvars, for a relevant contemporary
Christian theology of religions.
Locating the text in the texture of religious mobility and reflecting
the purpose of the text as a committed response to religious pluralism, this
consideration is pursued. The insights
for a contemporary Christian theology of religions are gleaned from the prudent
method, which Alvars used in their
poetry to convey the greatness of Visnu and Vaisnavism.
6.7.1 Need of Spiritual Foundation
The response of the Alvars to religious pluralism is
mirrored in their poems. Through their
poems the Alvars have conveyed the
fundamental message of Hinduism that, human beings are spiritual in
essence. This spiritual nature cannot be
taken for granted. One has to use it
while living on the earth to realize the highest spiritual end. It looks the Alvars insisted only on spiritual
aspects without adequately stressing the importance of social transformation.
It may not be completely true, because for the Alvars the spiritual transformation of an individual is fundamental
and sufficient prerequisite for other changes to take place. Hence, they invited and insisted every one to
attain such spiritual height through the grace of Visnu.
The Alvars appeal to people that, they should accept the Lord before it
was too late.[79] One of the reasons for such request is that,
in the world, relatives, pleasure of women, sensual pleasures, sickness etc.
are not permanent.[80] Another reason for people to be close to God,
rather than people [81]
is only when there is wealth, there will be people around.[82] And the wealth is not permanent. Even the status of kings will not be
permanent.[83]
Yet another reason is that, one cannot
call God, when approaching death.[84] Spirituality should be the crux of life. Thus
the poems of Alvars admonish people
to long for god before too old[85]
and being ridiculed by women.[86] The reason for such demand for spiritual
foundation is that, the Lord is the embodiment of dharma.[87]
All human endeavors should be rooted upon God’s dharma.
The deep-rooted spirituality demands
that such people be free from desire over other things.[88] Along with this, there is a demand to refrain
from attachment to the world.[89] The reason for such demand is that this world
is full of suffering from birth, death, sickness, old age, hell, etc.[90]
The general tone is that be devoted to god, and the rest will be clear. Further the corrupt society can be
enlightened only through the really enlightened people.
The Alvars envisaged a life in reflection of the intense relation with
God. As humanity is essentially spiritual, this intimacy should always be
constant. The demand for concrete
spiritual foundation as vivid in the life and works of Alvars should reach all levels of people beyond religious
boundaries. It is basic to civility and harmonious life. In Alvars’
response to religious pluralism the social dimension is implicit and not
explicit. It may be because of the nature of the Alvars that they were only devotional poets and not teachers.
Any perspective adopted in theology of
religions should have the spiritual foundation as its impetus. Unless theology of religions give adequate
importance to spiritual foundation, its impact will be short lived or invisible. Thomas Kochuthara says, “worship, devoid of
any interest in the concerns and aspirations of the people, can turn sterile
and hypocritical. But it is also equally
true that if we carry on relating ourselves to the human problems without
rooting ourselves in worship, our efforts will be futile.”[91] Thus the ‘immersing in’ or ‘diving in’
spiritual experience of the Alvars prompt
the theologian of religions to lay stronger spiritual foundation for their
perspective and then to proceed forward.
And this is the essence of all religions.
6.7.2 Life Concerns
Another impetus the theology of
religions may derive from the response of Alvars
to religious pluralism is their commitment for the concerns of life, especially
the life of the ordinary people of society.
From the religious point of view “the Prabandham becomes the
common-man’s literature embodying the spiritual experiences of persons from the
most common run of society.”[92] It is not a philosophical and theological
treatise. That is “the compositions of
the Alvars are more expository of
God-realization than being a critical inquiry into God’s existence.”[93]
They are plain and deep religious expressions.
Thus they meet the spiritual need of the common mass.
From social point of view, Vaisnavism
insists on “respect to one and all irrespective of the person’s caste and creed
and even of his good or bad merits.”[94] It is also stated that, “in short the idea underlying
Vaisnavism is human and emotional.”[95] It is because the Alvars lived normal human life and taught that householders can
experience God in their lives.[96]
They have respected human dignity. Nammālvār writes, Visnu treats every one
equally.[97] The purpose is for the better life of the
Vaisnavites.[98]
According to Martin Buber, “he who serves his people in the boundlessness of
destiny, and is willing to give himself to them, is really thinking of God.”[99]
The shift of concentration from the otherworldly objects to this worldly
humanity is crucial for any contemporary Christian theology of religions.
There is also a liberative motive in
the bhakti tradition of Alvars. This is evident from the many ‘incarnations’
of the Lord.[100] For example he protected the ‘cattle’ from
rain by using a mountain as umbrella.[101]
He became a charioteer to help the Pandavas.[102]
His descent as human being was to liberate the lowly in the society. According to Periyālvār, the Lord was born in
the midst of cowherds for their own liberation.[103] Further his birth among them had added merit
to the lives of cowherds.[104]
The main criticism about the Alvars was that they were imbued with
sympathetic outlook for humanity but were not men who were to mix up freely
with the sufferers and live amidst them.[105]
This may not be true in itself.
According to R. D. Kaylor and K. K. A. Venkatacharie, there is no
absence of social or world transformation in the works of Nammālvār. For him the highest ideal one could attain is
the service to God. He believes that
devoted service to God is the means of world transformation. Further, devoted service to God’s servants is
a part of devoted service to God.[106] Here too the equality of humanity is
expressed through the divinity of humanity, which is the crux of Hinduism.
The emphasis of Alvars on human life, equality of humanity, human dignity and the
liberative aspect of religiosity are vital for any contemporary theology of
religions. This is also in line with the
present paradigm shift in theology. That
is, the focus of attention is shifted from transcendental to mundane. In other words the concentration is shifted
from theos to anthropose, because of humanity’s ontological base in the one
ultimate mystery.
6.7.3 Exclusion of Caste Differences
In the Indian scenario caste
plays essential role at all levels. It
has been used and misused for various reasons.
It is also held that Hinduism has promoted caste. In this context, from the point of theology
of religions, it is appropriate to trace the relevance of the contributions of Alvars for a contemporary theology of
religions.
The general tone about the
issue is that the Alvars broke away
from the caste system. This is obvious in the list of Alvars. In their list, seven
were Brahmins, one was a Ksattriya,
two were Sūdras and one was of the low Panar Caste.[107]
According to Radhakrishnan, “there are twelve Ālvārs recruited from all
castes...”[108]
He extended it to the devotees and said, “among the worshippers of Visnu
there is no caste.”[109]
These are indications for the fact that the Ālvārs
maintained no caste rigidities.
Another incident was that a Brahmin carried Tiruppān Ālvār to the presence of God in
accordance with the command of God. Tirumaliśai Ālvār mentions his gratitude
to God for accepting him as a devotee, although he belonged to a lower order of
society. He writes:
Fy';fsha <hpuz;oy; xd;wpYk; gpwe;jpnyd:;
ey';fsha ew;fiyfs; ehypYk; etpd;wpnyd;;
g[yd;fs; Ie;Jk; btd;wpnyd;/ bghwpapnyd;/
g[dpj! epd;
,y';F ghjk; md;wp kw;W Xh; gw;W ,nyd; vk;
<rnd![110]
Tiruppallāndu mentions
that the lord disliked clannish nature[111]
of people. Tondaradippodi Ālvār sings:
Moikapw; Foik ,y;yh may; rJg;ngjpkhhpy;
Foikapy; flik gl;l Ff;fhpy; gpwg;gnuYk;/
Koapdpy; Jsgk; itj;jha;!
bkha; fHw;F md;g[ bra;a[k;
Moaiu cfj;jp nghYk;;; mu';f
kh efUshnd![112]
Nammālvār brings out the
idea that, ‘once a person has become the devotee of God, his/her caste discriminations
disappears and deserves worship:
Fyk@ jh'@F rhjpfs@ ehypYk@ fPH@ ,Hpe@J vj@jid
eyk@ jhd@ ,yhj
rz@lhs rz@lhsh@fs@
MfpYk@
From the point of religion, the Ālvārs advocated Prapatti
or surrender to God. While bhakti was restricted to the first three
orders of caste, prapatti was open to
all. It is said that the Alvars lent a new dimension to bhakti by making it an intensely
personal and popular appeal, which disregarded hierarchical and formal
tradition.[114] It was again after the time of Ācāryas that there was a distinction
between bhakti and prapatti. The former is considered to be superior and
those who cannot practice this can practice the latter. That is, prapatti
is for the lower caste of the people.
But Alvars maintained that it
is for all. All can practice prapatti and it is the easiest and the
better path of spiritual life. But when the Alvars
were succeeded by the Ācāryas, again
caste was introduced. N. Subrahmanian
remarked that, “the great Caiva Camaya
Āccāriyäs and the Vaisnavite Ālvārs
insistently preached the doctrine of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood
of man, but the society at large neither tried nor desired to get out of the
caste frame to which it had been accustomed all along.”[115]
In the Indian context caste should not escape
the attention of people who are committed to the cause of religious
pluralism. This can be a common platform
where people of diverse faith traditions can come together to struggle for the
cause of the society and degraded people (in the name of caste). It is an issue that warrants concrete
attention. Because there are people to
perpetuate caste for self interests. It
is challenging, inspiring and at the same time dreadful.
6.7.4 Emancipation of
Women
Another relevant insight for
a contemporary theology of religions from the bhakti tradition of Alvars
is its elevation of women. It is a very
sensitive and crucial issue along with caste, in India. D. S. Sarma maintained
that, “one pleasing feature of the Alvar
movement is that in it distinctions of caste, rank and sex were ignored.”[116] This was evident from the band of Alvars.
“It recognized the role of woman in such a spiritual community.”[117] Āndāl, the adopted daughter of Periyālvār was
one of the twelve Alvars. Her works
are included in the Nālāyiram. Her hymns best express the spiritual relation
between God and devotee using the relation between husband and wife. It was
amazing that a woman was accepted as a saint at a time such incidents sparingly
took place.
It is also remarkable that the Alvars have portrayed the soul as
woman. This is in continuation with the
influence of Tamil tradition, on the works of Alvars. Āndāl writes that
the Lord is protector of women.[118] The Periya
Tirumadal and Sriya Tirumadal are
examples where the woman [soul] is protesting against the tradition that men
alone could practice madal. S. P. Rajagopalan portrayed Āndāl as a
revolutionary woman for the causes of women.[119] Nancy Ann Nayar says, “she is also especially
remembered for her defiance of Hindu norms for women’s behavior in her refusal
to marry a human husband, because she considered herself married to God.”[120]
Nammālvār explains God as ‘Vt; capUf;Fk; jhnahd;’ (mother to all creation).[121] He also called God as ‘jha; je;ij’
(mother and father).[122] The same idea is found in Kanninun-Śiruttāmbu of Madhurakavi
Ālvār. He also addressed God as ‘md;idaha; mj;jdha;’ (mother and father).[123] Tirumańgai Ālvār, in Periya Tirumoli, called God as ‘mk;khDk;/ mk;kida[k; monaDf;F m{fp epd;w ey; khd xz; Rlnu!’ (you became my father and mother).[124]
These references testify that there was no hesitation on the part of the saints
to portray God as woman. The higher
status assigned to Srī in southern Vaisnavism can be another source of
inspiration for those who are committed to the cause of women in India.
There are feminist notions in the works of Alvars.
Āndāl, in Nācciyār Tirumoli
calls God as ‘bgz;zhsd;’ (protector of women).[125] The Periya
Tirumoli of Tirumańgai Ālvār,
declare that ‘bgz;m{fp ,d; mKjk; t";rpj;jhid’ (He came disguised as a female and denied ambrosia to
the Asuras).[126] Thus, the Alvars
have not just described God as women, but went further to consolidate that He
had taken the form of a women.
It is also exciting to note that Sri Sadagopan
Tirunarayanaswami temple situated in Jalladampet Village, Chennai, in Tamilnadu
is ministered by a priestess, Srimati Sowbhagyalakshmi, after the death of her
husband Srirama Bharati in the year two thousand.[127]
Even the inclusive language
of the Alvars is encouraging to the
women.[128] They addressed God as father and mother. This
is a great strength one can derive from the bhakti
tradition of Alvars for a
contemporary theology of religions. When
women’s concerns are expressed all over the world, those who pursue religious
pluralism should also be prompted to use these insights for the emancipation of
women. A contemporary theology of religions can use this issue for the bringing
together of diverse people of other faiths.
This is a common and contemporary need.
6.7.5 Inevitability
of Ecological Sensitivity
The
globe is apprehensive about the way technology is directing the world. People are deprived of proper water, air,
food and basic living needs.
Ecological imbalance is an issue that threatens the existence of the
whole cosmos. No individual can escape
this dreadful situation. As theology of
religions is committed to life and issues related to life, ecological concerns
cannot be ignored.
No
single religious community alone can solve this problem. It is a universal concern, which each and
every individual as members of diverse religious communities will have to face
and find solution. As no single religion
has all necessary solutions, it is crucial that people of different faiths come
together and pools their religious resources for a better preservation of
ecological balance. At this crisis
point, there are encouraging insights for a contemporary theology of religions,
in the ‘response of Alvars to
religious pluralism’ as reflected in their bhakti
tradition.
The Alvars were
poets par excellence. They had utilized
all the poetical skills known to the then Tamil world, in their hymns. Remarkable among them is the way in which the
Alvars described the beauty of
nature. The beauty of nature is
described so creatively to express the intense love between god and the
devotee. All Alvars have used nature to convey their spiritual experience.
Very specifically the poems of Āndāl are filled with the
description of early morning beauties.
Similarly Nammālvār’s ability to convey his spiritual experience through
the elements of nature are so soul stirring.
The message conveyed through nature was so effective. Of course, the
poet singers were poets in their own merit.
They have used the gift of nature in their poetical skills to praise the
grace of god.
It is said that the Lord appeared in a way that the
plants could experience him.[129] Not just that: He himself was the plants.[130] The Hindu tradition upholds the view that,
the earth and all that exists in it is divine, because God is the sky, fire,
air, earth and water.[131] Besides, he is in the moon, sun, and living
creatures of the world:
glh@ bghUs@fSk@
Ma@ epd@wtd@ jd@id/
...[132]
The bhakti
tradition of Alvars enables the
theology of religions to understand the greatness of nature and how even
spiritual matters are closely knit together with nature. The Alvars
creatively used nature in their hymns to express their unwavering devotion
to God. Today, the theology of religions
cannot stop with glorifying nature.
Rather it has to strive to bring all the committed people of different
faiths to preserve nature and to respect its spiritual beauty.
So that nature is helped to preserve the beauty and in
turn, humanity is helped to have a better life here on the earth. Thus ecological creativity of the Alvars can be a great inspiration for
the contemporary theology of religions to bring together people of different
faiths in addressing one of their common concerns.
6.7.6 Language of the
People
The most significant contribution of the bhakti tradition of Alvars to the contemporary theology of religion is its use of
language other than Sanskrit. Nāyanārs too used the language of the
people. It is said in general that the devotional literature is the net result
of Bhakti Movement.[133] The shift from the traditional Sanskrit to
Tamil itself is an indication of breaking the orthodoxy. It is taking the monopoly from the elite and
sharing with the ordinary. Sanskrit
could have been accessible only to a few but Tamil was the mother tongue of the
region. It can easily influence more
number of people with direct effect.
It is a telling lesson to the contemporary theology of
religions that it cannot ignore the language of people for the sake of one
language or group. Thus the contemporary
theology of religions to be effective and faster, it should commit itself to
understand the rich religious resources available in the various local
traditions.
It is interesting to note that the Alvars used Tamil and Tamil skills to popularize the puranic stories, in their effort to meet
the challenges of religious pluralism.
It is the earliest possible inculturation process in India. As the Sanskrit religious stories were
transmitted to people in the language of the people, the Alvars did not break away from the Sanskrit tradition. They used Tamil to propagate the Sanskrit
content. Each verse of Nālāyiram contains more than one
reference to puranic stories. Of course, there is enormous amount of
repetition of the stories.
The message and ideals of Alvars did not materialize as expected because the Ācāryas who succeeded the Alvars once again went back to the
traditional religious orthodoxy. Tamil
was taken over by Sanskrit. The
broken caste system in the bhakti
tradition of Alvars got new momentum
once again. Sanskrit or the mixture of
Tamil and Sanskrit replaced Tamil.
6.7.7
Inclusive Language
Another salient feature, which can be inspiring to the
theology of religions, is the use of inclusive language in the works of Alvars. When many religious texts are subject
to the patriarchal influence, the Alvars
used sensitive inclusive language to address God. God is addressed as father and mother. It is said the lord is my mother and father.[134] Nammālvār assures the soul that God is both
mother and father.[135] Again it is said, God loves us as father and
mother and descend into this world.[136]
Alvars’ use of inclusive language in their response to religious
pluralism as embodied in Nālāyiram is
a necessary change that the theology of religions should employ in its use of
language. It is a great challenge. The
many existing liturgies should strive to apply inclusive language in the place
of the traditional, orthodox and hierarchical ones.
Summary
There are legitimate reasons to trace relevant insights
for a contemporary theology of religions from the bhakti tradition of Alvars. The pluralist structure of the Nālāyiram is the first inspiration in
this venture. The Alvars were preceded by the Cańkam
epoch, which was marked by religious tolerance.
At the theoretical level the Alvars were exclusively committed to their own religion. It is
common to all committed religionists.
The exclusivist response of the Alvars
is expressed at least in three different ways. The first one is the way of peace and
tolerance. The second pattern is marked
by aggressive, antagonistic and intolerant attitude. And the third form is expressed through the
psychology of converts. The latter two
methods are hostile in nature and lead to fanatic activities. The exclusive
nature of Alvars is vivid in their
relation with Buddhism and Jainism at one level and Śaivism at another
level.
Besides the exclusive claims of the Alvars there is scope for an inclusive perspective in the works of Alvars. There are also traces of
relativist outlook. It is very crucial
to observe that, apart from these orthodox and narrow perspectives there is
scope for a liberal and wider perspective to the problem of religious pluralism
in the bhakti tradition of Alvars.
This may be understood in the form of ‘one-many’.
Apart from the
theoretical framework there are challenging and dynamic elements in the bhakti tradition of Alvars for a relevant and contemporary theology of religions. The Alvars’ strength was their deep-rooted spiritual
foundation. Any theology of religions to
be relevant, purposeful and long lasting should set its foot firmly on
spiritual foundation.
Religions
are meant for the betterment of ordinary people. Hence, addressing life concerns is the
paramount task of the theology of religions.
These concerns are common to all and that can provide an adequate
platform for people of diverse faiths to work together, harmoniously. The Alvars’
works have such visions. But those
visions were not actualized. The
actualizing process is a challenge for all committed Theologians of religions.
The Alvars
shattered the traditional caste hierarchy by including people of all castes
into their fold. They emphasized prapatti in the place of traditional bhakti.
Prapatti was open for
all. This openness was under question,
when Ācāryas took up the
responsibility. Besides caste, the
admission of a woman into the fold of Alvars
is a concrete inspiration for a theology of religions, to work with people of
all faiths.
The
use of nature as a source for describing their intense relation with god should
prompt one and all to develop attachment to nature because it sustains the life
of all creatures. Ecological concern is
a global problem that demands the cooperative contributions of all. Another important motivation for the
contemporary theology of religions is the use of vernacular by the Alvars.
Unless efforts are taken to bring into the fold of inter religious
activities, people from the grass-roots level, it will not reach its
destination. This is the lesson that can
be learned from the use of Tamil by the Alvars.
Another
impulse that can be very relevant for a contemporary theology of religions is
the use of inclusive language. The Ālvārs addressed God as father and
mother. Even their relation with the
deity is described in terms of relation between woman and man. Thus there are adequate elements in the
response of Alvars to religious
pluralism as echoed in their works, for a relevant and contemporary Christian
theology of religions.
[1]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Revised and Enlarged.,
New Delhi / Madras, Asian Educational Services, 1994, p.154.
[2]K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India from Prehistoric
Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, Second Edition, Madras, Oxford University
Press, 1958, p.412.
[3]Francis X. Clooney, The Art
& The Theology of Sri Vaisnava Thinkers, Madras, T. R. Publications for Satya Nilayam
Publications, 1994, p.45.
[4]Shu Hikosaka, Buddhism in Tamil Nadu A New Perspective, Madras, Institute of
Asian
Studies, 1989, p.16.
[5]P. T. Srinivasa Aiyangar, Pre–Aryan Tamil Culture, New Delhi, Asian
Educational
Service, 1985, p.53.
[6]V. D. Mahajan, Ancient India, Thirteenth Edition, New Delhi, S. Chand &
Company
Ltd., 1999, p. 800.
[7]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.41.
[9]S.V. Subramanian and R. ViJaya Lakshmy
ed., Philosophical Heritage of the Tamils,
Madras, International Institute of Tamil Studies, 1983, p.139.
[10]S. N. Kandaswamy, “Devotionalism in
the Jain and Buddhist Tamil Poems.” Journal of Tamil Studies, 47 & 48, June & December 1995, p.143.
[11]S. Sundararajan, Ancient Tamil Country, its Social and Economic Structure, New
Delhi, published by Mrs. Nirmal Single for NAVRANG Book Sellers and Publishers,
1991, p.16.
[12]V. D. Mahajan, Ancient India, Op. Cit., p.818.
[13]S. K. Ramachandra Rao, ‘Foreword’
in S.M. Srinivasa Chari, “Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Ālvārs”, New Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidoss Publishers, Private
Limited, 1997, p. IX.
[14]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special
Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.177.
[15]Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Fourth Edition, Madras, Oxford University
Press, 1975,
p.426.
[16]S.
M. Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and
Theistic Mysticism of the Ālvārs, Op. Cit., p.17.
[17]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special
Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.218.
[18] Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Op. Cit., p.427.
[19]Tirumangai Ālvār, Tirukkuruntāndakam, Verse 2039, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I,
p. 406.
[20]Tirupānālvār, Amalanādipirān, Verse 936, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p.
354.
[21]Periyālvār, Tiruppallāndu, Verse 3, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 14.
[22]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda Viruttam, Verse 839, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 324.
[23]Tondaradippodi, Tirumālai, Verse 880, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 336.
[24]Tirumangai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1472, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.206.
[33]K.
A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of
South India from Prehistoric Times to the fall of ViJayanagar, Op. Cit., p.415.
[34]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special
Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.216.
[35]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.188.
[36]Francis X. Clooney, Seeing Through Texts: Doing Theology Among
the Srīvaisnavas of South India, First
Indian Edition, New Delhi, Sri
Satguru Publications, A Division of Indian Books Center, 1997, p.76.
[37]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special
Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., pp. 626 – 627.
[38]S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South India,
Madras, The Oxford University Press, 1920, pp. 78 – 79.
[39]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.186.
[40]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nanmukan
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2385, [Iyerpā], Nālāyiram,
Vol. II, p. 106.
[42]Tondaradippodi Ālvār, Tirumālai, Verse 879, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram, Vol. I,
p. 336.
[43]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special
Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.222.
[44]Periyālvār, Periyālvār Tirumoli, Verse 364, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Vol. I, p. 146.
[45]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.186.
[46]K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India from Prehistoric
Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, Op.
Cit., p.415.
[47]S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South India,
Op. Cit., pp. 77 – 78.
[48]S. Jagathurachagan, Guruparampparai Pravagam, Chennai,
Ālvārgal
Aivu Myam, 1994, p.17.
[49]P. B. Annangarcharyar, Iyarpā
Ayyeram, [NanmugaThiruvanthathi], Karikudi, ‘Chitinadu’ Press, 1946,
Poem 2390(9), p.11.
[50]Francis X. Clooney, Seeing Through Texts: Doing Theology Among
the Srīvaisnavas of South India, Op.
Cit., p.75.
[51]S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South India,
Op. Cit., p.78.
[52]S. Satyamurthi Ayyangar, Tiruväymoli, English Glossary, Volume
II, Bombay, Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute, 1981, pp. 8 – 9.
[53]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda Viruttam, Verse 756, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 300.
[54]A. Pandurangan, “Bhakti Literature and
Human Values”, Journal of Tamil Studies,
43 & 44, June & December 1993, p.178.
[55]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special
Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.219.
[56]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verses 1157&1249, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Vol. I, pp.
88-124.
[57]Tirumańgai Ālvār,
Tiruneduntāndakam, Verse 2053, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Vol. I, p. 410.
[58]R. Meena, “A Note on the Bhakti
Movement in Tamilnadu”, N.N. Bhattacharya ed., Medieval Bhakti Movements in India, [Srī Caitanya Quincentenary
Commemoration Volume], New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, Pvt. Ltd.,
1999, p.189.
[59]Stephen Neil, Bhakti: Hindu and Christian, Madras, CLS, 1974, p.67.
[60]V. P. Chavan, Vaishnavism of the Gowd Saraswat Brahmins and a Few Konkani Folklore
Tales, Madras, Asian Educational Services, 1991, p.12.
[61]B. N. Luniya, Evolution of Indian Culture, Agra, Lakshmi Narain Agarwal
Educational Publishers, Tenth Edition, 1987, p.102.
[62]C. Retnadas, Incarnation and Contextual Communication, Sadhu Sundersingh Perspective, Tiruvalla, Christian Sahitya
Samithy, 2000, p.56.
[63]Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Op. Cit., p.426.
[64]Susmita Pande, Birth of Bhakti in Indian Religions and Art, New Delhi, Books &
Books Publishers and Distributors, 1982, p.115.
[65]S. N. Kandaswamy, “Tamil Literature
Through the Ages A Bird’s Eye View”, Journal
of Tamil Studies, 49 & 50,
June & December, 1996, p.91.
[66]D. S. Sarma, Hinduism Through the Ages, Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan, 1967, p.33.
[67]T. Gnanasundaram, Vainava Uraivalam. Madras, Thayammai
Pathipakkam, 1989, p.263.
[68] Tirumangai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1052, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.46.
[69]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3022, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
44.
[70]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1456, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 202.
[71]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2114, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 12.
[73]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nanmukan
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2383, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 106. & Nammālvār, Tiruviruttam, Verse 758,
[Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 302.
& Verse 768, p. 304.
[74]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1249, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 124. &
Verse 1128, p. 76.
[75]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Tiruvelukūrrirukkai, Verse 2672, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 222.
[76]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verses 3176, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 96. &
Verse 3650, p. 264. & Verse 3212, p. 108.
[77]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verses 3334, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 150.
[78]Shakti M. Gupta, Vishnu and his Incarnations, Bombay, Somaiya Publications
Pvt. Ltd., 1974, p. 1.
[79]Periyālvār, Periyālvār Tirumoli, Verses 371-380, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, pp. 150-154.
[80]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verses 1808-1817, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, pp. 324-326.
[81]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verses 3209-3219, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram,
Volume II, pp. 106-110.
[84]Periyālvār, Periyālvār Tirumoli, Verses 422-432, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I,
pp. 170-174.
[85]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verses 968-976, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, pp. 12-16.
Nālāyiram, Volume I, pp. 208-210.
[87]Tondaradippodi, Tirumālai, Verse 877, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p.338.
[88]B. R. Purushothama Naidu, Tiruvāymoli, ĪTTIN Tamilākkam, Third
Edition, Volume VI,
(Hymns, 553 – 662), University of Madras,
1989, [Nalamm Tiruvāymoli],
poem 5, pp. 308 – 309.
[89]B. R. Purushothama Naidu, Tiruvāymoli, ĪTTIN Tamilākkam, Fourth
Edition, Volume I, (Hymns-1-110), Madras, University of Madras, 1980, [Aram
Tiruvāymoli], poem 9, p.274.
[90]Sadagoba Ramanujathasan,
Tiruvāymoliyen Urai, Muthal Pagam, [Nalamm Pathi, Ninth-Tiruvāymoli], poem 5,
p.554.
[91] Thomas Kochuthara, Dialogue and
Liberation; Indian Theology Between the Local and the Global, New Delhi,
Inter Cultural Publications, 1999, p. 15.
[92]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special
Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.198.
[94]Rabindra Kumar Siddhantashastree, Vaisnavism Through the Ages, New
Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1985, p.112.
[95]V. P. Chavan, Vaishnavism of the Gowd Saraswat Brahmins and a Few Konkani Folklore
Tales, Op. Cit., p.11.
[96]A. Ethirajan, Älvärgal Varalaru, Karikudi (Tamilnadu), Sri Vainava Sidhanta Noor
Patippu Kazaham, 1998, p.18.
[97]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verses 2956-2958, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram,
Volume II, pp. 22-24.
[98]Kulaśekhara Ālvār, Perumāl Tirumoli,Verse 656, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.264.
[99] Martin Buber, I and Thou, Translated by Ronald Gregor Smith, Second Edition, New
York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958, p.106.
[100]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3003, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
38.
[101]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1601, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.250.
[103]Periyālvār, Periyālvār Tirumoli, Verses 11-22, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, pp. 18-20.
[104]Āndāl, Tiruppāvai, Verse 501, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 206.
[105]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandam,
Op. Cit., p.79.
[106]R. D. Kaylor & K. K. A.
Venkatacharie, God Far, God Near: An
Interpretation f the Thought of Nammālvār, Bombay, Ananthacharya
Indological Research Institute, 1981, pp. 93-99.
[107]Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume
III, First Indian Edition, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Indological
Publishers & Books
Sellers, 1975, p.64.
[108]Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Volume I, Reprinted in India, Bombay, Blackie
& Son Publishers PVT. LTD., 1985, p. 496.
[110]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda Viruttam, Verse 841, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Vol. I, p. 324.
Alas, I
am not fortunate to hail from well-bred families,
O Lord,
I am not well-read in the culture of the Vedas-four
I have
not won over my Five, the sense-pleasures, O Holy One!
The only
source of life I have is life of service to your feet!
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, The sacred Book of Four Thousand, Jaladampet, (Chennai), Sri
Sadagopan Tirunarayanaswami Divya Prabandha Pathasala, 2000, p.169.]
[111] Periyālvār, Tiruppallāndu, Verse 5, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 16.
O
Tulasi-wreathed Lord with lotus feet! Rather than a life of high
of high birth
and Vedic proficiency bereft of the spirit of service, you
are
pleased with a life of devotion, --even if it be from one born
of the
lowest rungs of the society. O Lord of
Arangama-nagar!
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.182.]
[113]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3195, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 102.
What
though a person be of lowly birth,--even a
Chandala of the lowly Chandalas,--if
he is a devotee
of my discus-bearing gem-lord, his
servant’sservant
shall be my master, just see!
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.481.]
[114]Susmita Pande, Birth of Bhakti in Indian Religions and Art, Op. Cit., p.5.
[115]N. Subrahmanian, Tamil Social History, Volume I, India, Institute of Asian
Studies, 1997, p.16.
[116]D. S. Sarma, Hinduism Through the Ages,
Op. Cit., p.37.
[117]Pandurangan, “Bhakti Literature and
Human Values”. Journal of Tamil
Studies, 43 & 44, June & December
1993, p.179.
[118]Āndāl, Nācciyār Tirumoli, Verse 615, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p.
248.
Pathippakam, 2000, p.16.
[120]Nancy Ann Nayar, ”The “Other” Āntāl: Portrait of a 12th
Century Śrīvaisnava Women”, Steven
J. Rosen ed., Vaisnavī, Women and the
Worship of Krishna, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1996, p.212.
[121]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 2951, [Tiruvāymoli], Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
20
Volume I, p. 356.
[124]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1560,
[Periya Tirumoli], Volume I, p.236.
[125]Āndāl, Nācciyār Tirumoli, Verse 615,
[Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram, Volume I, p.248
[126]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1095 [Periya
Tirumoli], Volume I, p. 62.
[127]The Researcher visited the Temple and
had Interview with the Priestess.
[128]Tondaradippodi, Tirumālai, Verse 908, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 344. & Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3638, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.260.
[129]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda Viruttam, Verse 767, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Vol. I, p. 304.
[131]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1025, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 36. & Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2110, [Iyarpā],
Volume II, p.12.
[132]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1270, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 132.
Sky,
Fire, Water, Moon and the Sun too, Earth and the beings-living all,--
He who is all these and other things
too, ….
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.267.]
[133]S. N. Kandaswamy, “Tamil Literature
Through the Ages A Bird’s Eye View”, Journal
of Tamil Studies, Op. Cit., p.91.
[134]Tondaradippodi, Tirumālai, Verse 908, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 344.
[135]Nammālvār, Periya Tiruvandādi, Verse 2607, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 196.
[136]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3003, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 38.
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