Mission, Conversion and Violence against Indian Christians
Mission, Conversion and Violence against Indian Christians
Introduction
The
expressions mission, conversion and violence against Christians are complex.
However, the fact that the book Breaking
India: Western Interventions in Dravidian and Dalit Faultlines by Rajiv
Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan was first published in 2011 and its
twenty-second impression was in 2023, alarmingly suggests the state of affairs
of the Christians as construed by the so called majority in India. It is more
alarming that the same themes of the book are elaborated further in Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0
by Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan published in 2022.
Some religiously
fanatic intellectuals claim that the Protestant evangelists and colonialists of
the East India Company had set up separate Indological institutions with
mandates ‘to weaken the Indian civilization’ and these institutions collaborate
‘between Western academics and Indian scholars’. It is like ‘today’s south
Asian studies, which involve collaborations between the US government,
corporations, private foundations, universities, and human rights groups’ ‘to
control Indian institutions’.[1]
Today all Indian local issues are ‘co-opted by one or more global multinational
religious or human rights organizations and/or NGOs operating for some foreign
interest. These opinions are contrary to the present reality that our leaders
take pride in reaching USA.
The Southern Baptist Church, a huge multinational
with a big network of churches in Nagaland and Tamil Nadu, has a business plan
for establishing tense of thousands of churches in South India. The members of
these churches (in India) are not minorities because they are ‘working for,
funded by, appointed by, or trained by a foreign global nexus’. It is ‘part and
parcel of a global majority’.[2]
These general perceptions and
innovative definitions prevail among the majority in India and that is the content
(profusely) and context for our discussion of mission, conversion and violence against Christians
in India.
1 Mission
The
Old Testament understanding of mission is based on the consideration that God is
God of history and God of promise.[3]
This has led to a negative attitude towards the nations.
Christianity
is missionary by its very nature. Its mission is the expression of the dynamic
relationship between God and the world, as portrayed in the OT and then in the
birth, life, death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus of Nazareth. [4]
The missionary nature of the church is grounded in the gospel.
The
NT ‘does not reflect a uniform view of mission and therefore there is no single
‘overarching term for mission’.[5]
Hence mission is multifaceted; it changes from context to context. However, mission
in India is always linked to the colonial rule.
The
word mission (singular) ‘refers primarily to the missio Dei (God’s mission), which ‘enunciates the good news that
God is a God-for-people’. On the other hand Missions
(plural) refers to the missionary ventures of the church.[6]
Today,
“mission is a multifaceted ministry, in respect of witness, service, justice,
healing, reconciliation, liberation, peace, evangelism, fellowship, church
planting, contextualization and much more.”[7] Therefore it has to be multidimensional and
different in different contexts. Whether mission is local or global is a
continuing debate.
1.1 History of Indian Mission
The
history of Indian mission dates back to St. Thomas. It became more active from
the arrival of Portuguese (Catholic) and then the Danish mission, Anglican
chaplains and evangelical missions (William Carey) with whom Bible translation
became paramount.
Danish
Mission was identified with the English colonies/ Anglo-Indian Empire. The
Charter of 1698 stated that the chaplains in the factories are to study the
vernacular language, to instruct the Hindus ‘that shall be the servants or
slaves of the same Company, or of their agents, in the Protestant religion’. But
it was never practiced. In fact, ‘Protestant missions were commenced in Bengal’
only after Plassey war in 1758.
The
mission was firmly rooted in Calcutta and Bengal by 1813, and it gained
considerable power, and in the end all opposition on the part of the Company
was silenced. The principle role in this was played by the famous Serampore
Trio.[8]
Their main project was to give the Holy Scriptures to all the people of Asia in
their own tongue. Besides, they established college to train their own
missionaries, principally from amongst the Indian Christians; and printing
press, boarding schools and other institutions to uplift the communities.
However,
tangible ‘increase in the results of missions’ took place ‘after effects of the
help which had been so devotedly rendered during the stress of plague and
famine’[9]
in India.
In
the famine of 1837 missionaries first gathered together on a large scale
children who had been made orphans by the famine, and created orphanages for
them, ‘and in general it is only the children of the poorest and most degraded
sections of the community’.[10]
Majority
of early Christians were ‘certainly drawn from the lower and the lowest strata
of the people’ and from the out castes. They were generally in entire
financial, social, and intellectual dependence upon the mission[11]
and sought a refuge amongst the Christians.
Missionaries established ‘schools for
catechists’ with a comprehensive syllabus. Greek and Hebrew were taught. Although
the instruction was in English, an attempt was made to preserve the ‘catechists’
sense of nationality as far as possible intact’. Subsequently ‘seminary for
catechists’ was built in Madras (in 1838) and in other places with the
conviction ‘a thorough course of training at some theological college is
indispensable for every catechist’.[12]
Attempts to develop the native churches are one of the characteristic features
of Indian missionary effort. Most Hindu groups failed to notice these facts and
continue to oppose mission.
In
1905, the native Christians of south India (with the support of missionaries of
various societies) conceived a plan to form purely an Indian Missionary Society
for the evangelization of the masses not yet touched by the different
missionary organizations.[13]
The National Missionary Society is the outcome of these proposals.
There
was no area of life left untouched from the enlightening and empowering works of
mission. Mission was the leaven at work as well - religious, ethical,
political, social, literature, education, and in other branches. In many of
these, the missions were pioneers. The statement “It is impossible to write a
detailed history of India in the nineteenth century without encountering
missionary work and great missionaries at every step.”[14]
is appropriate, indeed.
In
spite of the persistent effort to maintain Indianness, sincerity, nationalism,
pioneering nature etc., mission is not free from criticism from within and
without.
1.2 Criticism of Mission
Theological
fraternity is well aware of the criticism from within - colonialism, culture,
tradition, westernization, etc. in spite of the many other transformative
aspects. Criticism from outside are: St Thomas tradition is a myth, Catholic collaborated
with Portuguese, Danish and others with British colony; and mission has
disturbed, native religion, culture, tradition, patriotism, etc.
1.2.1 Assimilating Hinduism in to Christian History and
Dogma- South India
It
is claimed ‘a series of process in South India has started to assimilate
Hinduism into Christian history and dogma’. This process uses a version of
Dravidian history which claims St Thomas came to India and that ‘the Tamil
classics were composed under his Christian influence’. Therefore ‘Tamil classics
should be called Dravidian Christianity’. Credit is given to ‘Thomas
Christianity’ for everything positive in the south Indian culture, while
blaming Hinduism for whatever is to be denigrated’.[15]
Various
institutional mechanism have been involved to suggest that the unadulterated
Tamil /Dravidian spirituality was purer and similar to Christian but got
contaminated by Aryan influence. These
claims illustrate the fundamentalist characters of some groups of Hindus.
1.2.2 Collaboration between Dravidian Movement and
Evangelism
According
to the majority (Hindu), Bishop Robert Caldwell was instrumental in ‘the
Dravidian movement’s construction of anti-Brahmin discourse in racial rather
than socio-economic terms’. The Justice Party founded by Tamil natives in 1916
and encouraged by the British, became the first political vehicle of Dravidian
Ideology.
The
views that ‘the Dravidian movement and Christian evangelism collaborate to
undermine a common enemy’ and the St Thomas myth ‘serves as a tool to carve out
Tamils from the common body of Indian culture and spirituality’ are designed to
curtail self respect and humanization among the Dravidians.
It
is further held that in the 1970s, M. Deivanayagam began twisting the Tamil
classical texts by superimposing on them a Christian meaning. His work was
promoted by powerful catholic clergies and ‘academic bodies that were
controlled by Dravidian identity politics’[16]
particularly, the International Institute of Tamil Studies and the Christian Studies
Chair at Madras University.
1.2.3 Indigenization
Some
maintain that Robert de Nobili (1577-1636), ‘committed a fraud by claiming to
have discovered what he termed as Fifth Veda’/‘Jesus Veda’, which show that the
entire Indian tradition is a corrupted subset of Christianity. Again, many
Vedic terms are ‘Christianized to create confusion among Hindus’. For instance,
Prajapati in the Purusha Hymn of the Rig Veda is projected as a ’prophetic
revelation about the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ’. Prominent theologian Raimundo
Pannikar, held the idea that ‘Vedas are the prophecy of Jesus’ arrival, and
hence, ‘Christianity is the fulfillment of the Vedas’. Sadhu Chellappa (Agni ministries),
claims that ‘Prajapati in the Vedas is the anticipation of the coming of Jesus,
therefore the Vedic quest is incomplete without Jesus’.
Another
accusation is that the festival, Maha Sivaratri (the great night of Siva) is
interpreted as ‘the corrupted version of the Messiah Night’[17]
where Jesus wanted his disciples to keep eternal vigil.
1.2.4 Evangelism
Other
allegations are that there are ‘efforts to embed Vedic thought within Christian
symbols to apply in the conversion of Hindus and other Dharmic peoples in India’.
The notion ‘that ancient Indian sacred literature somehow expected the arrival
of Christianity’ has ‘become a favorite evangelical tool employed in India by
missionary scholarship’.[18]
William
Jones’ effects show Sanskrit texts as a boost to Biblical history, and not as a
heathen threat. He was an ‘early appropriator of Hinduism in order to enhance
the credibility of Christianity’.[19]
Similarly, “Max Muller served as a functionary for the colonialists and for
Christian evangelists, while being deeply interested in ancient Indian texts.”[20]
The assertion is that most of these scholars strived to establish European
supremacy.
1.2.5 Academics
What
we celebrate as illuminating contributions of Christian mission is
contemptuously viewed by others in India. For instance, it is asserted that the
Yale ‘University’s project of a Dravidian Etymological Dictionary served as a
geopolitical tool to boost Dravidian identity politics’ ‘and to legitimize its
tendencies for secession from India’, that is linguistic secessionism.
Harvard (Western scholars) launched
projects to identify numerous linguistic fragments within India. It gives ‘the
communities the status of separate ethnicities that had been subjugated by
foreign Aryans’. For example, this has identified Munda as the ‘original
native’. The creation of ever smaller group identities increases fragmentation
and conflict. ‘This has been one of the persistent consequences of Western
academia’. Maoist militancy is present where this work has focused for the past
twenty years.
The
study of the classical literatures of Indian languages in the western
universities provides opportunities for creating divisiveness. For example, the
Berkeley Tamil Chair has ‘created tension between Tamil literature and the rest
of Indian literature’. They exaggerate every tiny local distinction available
to them but ‘elements that are common with the rest of India and that unify all
Indians are claimed to be the result of Brahmin manipulation’. It is an example
of over emphasis on singular identity.
Those
against Christian mission link evangelical Christian institutions and Tamil
identity and suggest that Western money flows in and scholars from the West
covertly or openly support secessionist movements. They make people believe
that ‘Dravidian languages were older than Sanskrit and that Sanskrit
appropriated the Dravidian vocabulary’. Thus ‘the idea took root that the
Aryans had conquered and oppressed the Dravidians, who now must reassert their
identity’.[21]
This kind of projects helped ‘tribal identity politics’. Then the tribal groups become ‘easy targets
for conversion efforts of every kind’. For example the militant Maoist
organizations operating in tribal areas claim that ‘tribals are not Hindu. They
are nature worshippers’.[22] These thoughts lead to separatist
nationalism.
Irrespective of all these criticisms, mission
continues looking unto Jesus and his works. Church
has to continue its liberative and empowering mission relevant to the context.
2 Conversion
Freedom of religion
is a constitutional provision guaranteed to every Indian citizen. The word
conversion is not in the constitution. Christians claimed that propagation
(article 25) contains conversion within it. Discussion on conversion is frequently
invoked to curtail freedom of religion. In our context the word ‘conversion’ is
used as a veil to highlight hosts of other false presumptions imposed on
transformation and empowerment of the marginalized.
Even
freedom of religion is not the main concern for others. It is the social change
that follows freedom of religion is threatening them. That is why Tamil,
Dravidian ideology, education, etc are opposed with vigor. As the Dravidian
Movement almost annihilated social discrimination it is opposed as siding with
Christians.
Discussion
on freedom of religion is always connected with caste, nation, culture,
language, religion, security, society, civilization, etc to make it disastrous.
The same strategy is used against mission works. Where freedom of religion
worked well towards transformation and empowerment the majority group is grieved.
Mission too is not just changing from
one religion to another, but transforming and empowering life in manifold forms,
particularly, of the people in the margins. In Indian political discourses the
term conversion is preferred to freedom of religion so as to create an
illusionary grave situation.
To make it more aggressive, finance is
added to it. It is accused that US Church’s funding of activities in India, is used
‘for indoctrination and conversion activities’.[23]
It looks; helping an avarna is anathema to dharma.
2.1 Indianization
Although
there is no single Indian culture, all our efforts to identify with the Hindu
culture is seen with suspicion. For example Christian efforts to respect Bharata Natyam is criticized as ‘Hindu art-forms and other
aspects of the Vedic traditions are being targeted by missionary-scholars for
Christian infiltration and appropriation’. Some are even inventing Christian mudras in place of Hindu.
Our
efforts of liberating the oppressed are also ungratefully criticized as we are
‘attacking the devadasi system on the
grounds of human rights’.[24]
Christians are accused of showing the Hindu art forms as oppression by Brahmins
and promoting folk art as liberative.
2,2 Caste/Dalit
The bold attempts of missionaries
to help the victims of caste are construed as criticism against it. It is
contended that ‘the Indian sociological notions of varna and jati were very
old, complex, and fluid’ but the Europeans made it rigid. Further, ‘something
as seemingly idealistic and humanistic as Critical Race Theory (CRT) is being
exploited to break down a society built over several millennia’.[25]
To maintain caste and karma intact it is stated that “traditional ideas of hard
work and merit, and traditional systems of rewards are called into question by
Critical Race Theory.”[26]
Afro-Dalit Project is a US-operated and financed
project that views dalit movement using American cultural and historical
lenses. It ‘paints Dalits as the ‘Blacks’ of India and non-Dalits as India’s
‘Whites’. ‘The Afro-Dalit project attempts to empower Dalits by casting them as
victims at the hands of a different race’.[27]
‘The Dalit activism based on this ideology finds support from Western
evangelists, left-liberal NGOs, and government bodies’. It claims ‘Hinduism to
be a racist structure’.[28]
The sole purpose of CRT is to transport American racism into India.
2.3 Dravidian Movement and Race Theory
The
dynamism of Dravidian Movement is abused as ‘it serves to undermine the unity
of India by encouraging a clash between Dravidians and other Indians.”[29] Bishop “Caldwell’s thesis of south Indian
Dravidians as victims of north Indian Aryans was converted into a social
movement by E. V. Ramasamy (popularly known as EVR).”[30]
Through this thesis, the missionaries ‘de-linked Tamil culture from its pan-Indian
cultural matrix’.[31]
Bishop Caldwell ‘argued that “Once the
Dravidian mind would be free of the superstitions imposed by Aryans, Christian
evangelization would reap the souls of Dravidians.”[32]
For the Hindus the ‘Aryan/Dravidian divide that haunts south India was an
entirely European theory brought to India’.[33]
It is painful that the majority community in India is failing to appreciate the
liberation of others.
2.4 Tamils
Peoples’ choice of religion and missionary
contributions to Tamil is misinterpreted as ‘missionary scholarship stimulated
a new local ethnic identity, which was instructed to reject its Hindu nature’.[34]
And even Caldwell proposed the complete removal of Sanskrit words from Tamil.
G.U. Pope explained ‘Saivism could be respectfully
projected as an earlier form of Tamil religion that shared common features with
Christianity’. [35]
He equated the Saiva acceptance of guru with Christ.
Missionaries
attempted to show that ‘the Kural and
Saiva Siddhanta were anti-Aryan and similar to Christianity’.[36]
It is not change of religion that is the serious issue but cast has to continue
with all its characteristics.
3 Violence against Indian Christians
The violent
Hindu groups and sections of Christianity continue to oppose mission work of
certain types that lead to change of religion and provoke violence against Christians.
What is constitutional is that all persons are equally entitled to freedom of
conscience and to profess, practice and propagate their own religion subject to
public order, morality and health. Scrutiny of all anti-Christian violence
within this frame work is complex and often not free from bias.
However,
antichristian violence continues to take place in many places on different
pretexts. In most cases, the pattern of anti-Christian violence is horrifying. ‘Destroying
the bodies, homes, churches, institutions, possessions, and livelihoods of
Christians undermines their political and economic power’. It also serves as a warning that they must
keep their heads down and discourage or stop proselytization. For the Hindu
nationalists, proselytization is a rejection of the “traditional” Hindu/Indian
culture.[37]
Most of
the victims of anti-Christian violence are dalits. Anti-Christian violence puts
down the dalit Christian assertions. These have become problematic for those
who conceive the nation (India) as Hindu[38]
and benefit from it.
There are
others who think that Christianity is a numerical threat. And still others consider
‘the cultural challenge Christianity represents in terms of its alleged
association with Western cultural norms’. In reality, ‘it is not in fact
anti-Christian but is rather anti-dalit’[39]
activity that provoke violence against Christians. One of the reasons for
resisting Western secular modernities by the traditional elite is that they ‘are
a threat to the authority and privilege of those traditional Hindu elites’.
For many,
Christianity is not properly dharmic and therefore does not merit equal respect
or rights.
Another fact is ‘most Indian Hindus do not
naturally perceive a clear distinction between “the religious” and “the
political’. Therefore, ‘Western forms of secularism are a threat to the Indian
nation both because they seek to differentiate religion from other aspects of
civilization and because of their universalizing pretensions’.[40]
There ‘is
the widespread presumption that Indian Christians have greater and easier
access to Western wealth and make use of that wealth to dazzle and lure
impecunious Hindus to the fold’.[41]
Added to this is ‘the easy identification of so many young and wealthy Indians
with all things Western’. [42]
This is viewed as a cultural invasion.
Some view
Christians as a ‘threat to the nation’, anti nationals, and destabilizing India.
In fact Gandhi’s ‘critique of conversion provided support for the
anti-Christian rhetoric of the Sangh Parivar’.[43]
In the
case of Dara Singh “India’s supreme court appears to have taken as a mitigating
circumstance the fact that Singh had been angered by Staine’s missionary work,
of which the court took a dim view, declaring, “it is undisputed that there is
no justification for interfering in someone’s belief by way of ‘use of force’,
provocation, conversion, incitement or
upon a flawed premise that one religion is better than the other.”[44]
This observation
has many future consequences.
3.1 International Nexuses
International
nexuses have the effect of ‘dividing, destabilizing and weakening India, while
at the same time demonizing and distorting’ its culture. It is claimed ‘the US
government uses USAID to channel funds through transnational evangelical
organizations such as World Vision’.
‘Academic
studies of India in the West sometimes discover/create new fault line or
intensify the existing ones’ and they influence international policies on
India. They also show that dalits, minorities and women ‘are oppressed as the
result of Indian civilization’s flows’. It
is feared that these results negatively affect the study of Hinduism and Indian
civilization as well.
Postmodernism is unfairly used by Indians to
deconstruct their own nationality and civilization. According to them ‘India is
to be replaced by a large number of ‘sub-nations’. “Homi Bhabha, a co-director
for Harvard’s South Asia program, is regarded as the pioneer in developing the
theory of ‘hybridity of cultures and identity.” [45]
The
evangelist groups see the problem ‘not as economic or historical, but in terms
of a flawed civilization that must be replaced by a better imported one’.[46]
Harvard’s research projects and conferences are
attacking India’s legitimacy as a nation-state, its Constitution, and its
ruling party under the theme of social justice. Scrapping Article 370 of the
Constitution, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019 (CAA), and the New Farms
Acts 2020, Kashmir, LGBTQ+ rights and Muslim grievances became opportunities to
form coalitions against the government.[47]
Therefore, “Harvard seems to be especially obsessed with building databases and
archives that can be of strategic value to Breaking India forces besides being
a national security threat to India”.[48]
The breaking India group, for the majority, is the Christians and dalits.
Besides,
there are ‘network’ of organizations, individuals and churches, private
think-tanks and academics ‘devoted to the task of creating a separatist
identity, history and even religion for the vulnerable sections of India’.[49]
These and many more are the main reasons for the antichristian violence in
India in the form of many government policies- FCRA, foreign missionaries,
academicians, etc besides physical.
3.2 Evangelical Tools
Most
Christian organizations/institutions/individuals who voice for the marginalized
are closely scrutinized by Hindu groups. They say, Gurukul(Chennai) ‘is
affiliated to the notorious Serampore College, which was once used to
facilitate British colonial rule. The Gurukul College also provides the locus
from which foreign evangelical educational institutes study various targeted
Indian communities.’ It ‘also acts as a
center for gathering intelligence for evangelical programs against Indian
traditions’.[50]
TTS also is attributed with similar anti-Indian activities.
World
Vision, a so-called relief organization, acts ‘as an intelligence-gathering
agency for Western governments’[51]
‘Inflow of very large sums of foreign money through Christian evangelical channels
into the impoverished regions of India has enabled churches and related
missions to mushroom’.
For
example, in the Kannyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, Christian majority pressure
Hindus ‘against the public celebration or display of their traditions and
symbols’. Hindu shrines are often violently destroyed and local village names
are changed to Christian names. Consequently ‘angry natives often turn to Hindu
nationalist organizations for support’.[52]
When the natives want to protect their historical identities and cultures,
conflicts erupt. It is a sad fact that willful and planned antichristian
violence is justified on many grounds.
Another
presumptuous cause for violence is the opinion that Church in India was being
built of conquests starting from the arrival of the Portuguese. ‘The Church and
other Christian institutions own real estate of value far greater than the
percentage of the people. Besides, they have a disproportionate ownership of
educational institutions that bring in huge revenues and facilitate the
enjoyment of political and social oppressive power over the Hindu masses’. Some
Christian educational institutions ‘sell access to vulnerable families in
exchange for their conversion to Christianity’.[53]
It is a growing fear that the majority community targets Christian properties.
The
new allegation is that “there have been numerous suicides by those subjected to
aggressive evangelism, particularly among young girls in Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh.”[54]
One can easily foresee the majority group’s updating of current data, often
unproved, to perpetuate violent acts against Christians.
Conclusions
Mission
in India is always considered as an agent of western powers in spite of its
pioneering activities in almost all aspects of human life and humanizing
activities. Indian church has always been faithful to its commitment to the
nation.
Freedom
of religion is not the main issue for the Hindu groups but its after effects
particularly in social changes.
There
are many reasons for antichristian violence in India. Some Hindus ask, should
we not dismantle monuments built by conquerors?’ “Should the English language
be dismantled as a language of the oppressor?”[55]
Hindu violence is justified by suggesting Hindus demand back their sacred sites
and dismantling of colonial structures including that of Muslim.
Hindu
Groups raise the issues of culture, nation and conversion against Christians to
project a particular political ideology.
The churches in India have taken utmost care
to preserve indianness in all their activities. Their sincere efforts at
different times are abused today. Freedom of religion has become a subject
matter of great concern because it shakes the foundation of caste system.
Violence against Christians is not just physical. It is physical,
psychological, academics, economic, etc.
The church has existed in these situations fully committed to the
salvific nature of the gospel and it will continue. The present nature of
Christian alignment leaning towards majority political forces makes difficult any
proposal for unified action even as violence torments Manipur. Yet the churches
should prepare to meet the intellectual challenges that are shaping government
policies and threatening mission, freedom of religion and Christian witness/presence
in our times with much sensitivity and responsibility.
[1] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, Breaking India: Western Interventions in
Dravidian and Dalit
Faultlines, 22nd impression (Uttar Pradesh: Amaryllis, 2023), 48-50.
[2] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 7.
[3] David J Bosch, Transforming Mission (Maryknoll, New York: ORBIS BOOKS, 1991), 17-19.
[4] David J Bosch, 9.
[5] David J Bosch, 16.
[6] David J Bosch, 10.
[7] David J Bosch, 512.
[8] Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, translated by Sydney H. Moore,
reprint in India (New Delhi:
Christian World Imprints, 2014), 128-134.
[9] Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, 240.
[10] Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, 410.
[11] Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, 409.
[12] Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, 420-426.
[13] Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, 433- 436.
[14] Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, 406.
[15] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 89.
[16] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 88 -91.
[17] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 108-111.
[18] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 29 - 33.
[19] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 45.
[20] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 26.
[21] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 155-158.
[22] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 164.
[23] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, XII.
[24] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 112- 113.
[25] Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan, Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0
(Noida, U.P., India:
BluOne Ink LLP, 2022),XXiV and XXV.
[26] Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan, Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0 XXXII.
[27] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, XI.
[28] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 198.
[29] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 143.
[30]
Bishop Robert
Caldwell (1814-91), an evangelist for the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel,
invented ‘Dravidain Race’ ‘in his Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Race. Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 198.
[31] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 9.
[32] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 62.
[33] Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan, Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0, XXIII.
[34] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 65.
[35] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 74.
[36] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 108.
[37] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, first Indian edition (New Delhi:
Sanctum Books,
2021), 10.
[38] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, 12-14.
[39] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, 15.
[40] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, 9 -11.
[41] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, 18.
[42] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, 21.
[43] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, 112.
[44] Chad M. Bauman, Anti-Christian Violence in India, 17.
[45] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 174-181.
[46] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 188.
[47] Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan, Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0, XLI.
[48] Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan, Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0, XLIII.
[49] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, XII.
[50] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 325 -326.
[51] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 346.
[52] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 334-335.
[53] Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan, Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0, 77.
[54] Rajiv Malhotra and Arvindan Neelakandan, 373.
[55] Rajiv Malhotra and Vijaya Viswanathan, Snakes in the Ganga: Breaking India 2.0, 37.
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