ALVAR'S ATTITUDE TO THEIR RELIGIOUS CONDITION
GENERAL
RELIGIOUS CONDITION AND THE ATTITUDE OF ĀLVĀRS
Introduction
It is evident from the historical
point of view that the Alvars added
additional strength to Vaisnavism. They
utilized the principles, ideals and skills of Tamil literature in their
struggle against other religions and sects. Vaisnavas considered them as divine
descends and attributed supernatural qualities.
The works of the Alvars are
treated on par with the Sanskrit scriptures.
The Ācāryas have taken efforts
to popularize their works, which are the spontaneous outpouring of their
spiritual experience.
As the present author focuses upon the
response to religious pluralism in the bhakti
tradition of Alvars, it is
essential to analyze the general religious situation of the Alvars and their response to other faith
traditions. This is done with direct
reference to the works of Alvars. In other words, this is carried out from the
point of textual study. The works of the
twelve Alvars can be analyzed
independently in order to read their real motives. Further, these may be the only available and
reliable sources for the purpose of research without any bias.
The thrust of the Alvarswas
the supremacy of Tirumāl. In order to
establish the supremacy, they had to confront other religions and sects, which
were committed to similar claims. According to S. M. Srinivasa Chari “the main
opposition to Vaisnavism as a religious cult, has come from Saivism, Buddhism
and Jainism.”[1] The response of Alvarsto these three faith traditions shall be our focal
point of research. To realize this objective, it is essential to understand the
religion, philosophy and the religious context of the Alvars. Further, a study of
the context of each Ālvār and his or
her attitude to other faiths as reflected in their poems, may be of immense
help to analyze the response to religious pluralism in the bhakti tradition of Alvars.
5.1
Religion
Whether Nālāyiram reflects bhakti or
prapatti is a controversial
question. According to J. S. M. Hooper
“the Ālvārs in their hymns assume the
position of the Gītā with regard to
Visnu and Krsna, and in the type of devotion which they represent and
stimulate they maintain bhakti as the
great way of salvation.”[2] The other view is that the emphasis was on prapatti. It is said, “the doctrine of self–surrender
though traceable to the Pāñcarātra Āgamas,
became popular only through the compositions of the Ālvārs.”[3] Irrespective of these differing opinions it
is commonly accepted that the Alvars were
the proponents of prapatti. This shall be vivid in the discussion on the
religiosity of the Alvars.
The religiosity of the Alvars looks quite convenient for any range of people. One way of practicing religion is to praise
God. According to Poygai Ālvār, God
will accept the devotees who utter the names of God and praise him according to
the rules of Sāstra.[4] Pūtattālvār writes, my body rejoices in
dancing and praising about you (God).[5] He also admonishes people to live by praising
God.[6] That is to praise the characters of the Lord.
There is an advice to chant the three divine mantras to
worship God. They are called Rahasya-Traya [the three secrets]. The first one is Tirumantra [the holy mantra] or Mūla-mantra. That is, chanting ‘aum namo Nārāyanāya’ which means “Aum, reverence to Narayana.”[7] It is also called the eight-lettered mantra.[8]
The second one is called ‘Divya mantra’ [the double mantra]: Śrīmān - Nārāyana – Caranau Śaranam prapadye, Śrīmate Nārāyanāya
namah’ i.e., ‘I take refuge at
the feet of Nārāyana with Śrī; reverence to Nārāyana with Śrī.[9]
The third one is called the ‘Carama Śloka’, which is ‘the
last verse of the Bhagavad Gītā, [18:66].
Sarvān dharmān parityajya mām
ekam śaranam vraja, aham tvā sarvapāpebhyah moksayīsyāmi mā śucah’ i.e., “giving up all dharmas take me
alone as your refuge; I will free you from all your sins; do not grieve.”[10] According to Trumalisai, those who did not
learn carama śloka were enemies of
God.[11]
Chanting the thousand names of the Lord is another way of
devotion to God.[12] Even the very name of the lord has so much of
religious significance.[13] It has to be meditated upon always.[14]
It is also instructed that children be named after the names of the Lord.[15]
One way of approaching the Lord is by offering flowers,
garlands and incenses.[16] Similarly, visiting the various holy places
is another way of religious observance.
Every Ālvār prescribes certain
holy places. These are the places, where
the deity had given darsan to the
devotee or appeared at some point of time.
Service to the deity is another meritorious form of
worship to the Lord. It is done while
living here and in the next world.[17] It is advisable that one always involves in
the service of the Lord.[18] Even heaven (motcham) is considered as service at the pure presence of God.[19]
Another form of worship is the worship of the feet of the
Lord.[20] Those who worship the feet of the Lord would
enjoy the heavenly bliss here itself.[21] Worshipping the devotees, irrespective of the
social status is another form of religiosity.[22] Even applying the dust from the feet of the
devotee is a form of worship.[23] Tirumalisai writes a comprehensive verse
about the form of religiosity:
Thus, it may be said that the religion of the Alvars was very simple and accessible to
people of all walks of life. It is
different from the traditional mechanical, ritualistic and hierarchical
religion. There was no prescribed
form. People could choose whatever was
convenient for them. The poems of the
Alvars were composed in the common language of the people. Therefore, the Ālvār movement could have easily
influenced the common people.
5.2
Philosophy
The works of the Alvarswere
not primarily meant for philosophical discourses. Surendranath Dasgupta writes, “as the hymns
of the Ārvārs have only a literary and devotional form, it is difficult to
utilize them for philosophical purposes.”[25] It is further emphasized that, “the poetical
compositions of the God–intoxicated Saints comprise mostly devotional songs in
praise of the glory of God and do not as such discuss philosophical and
theological doctrines in a sequential order.”[26] It is true that the hymns of the Alvars were not intended for
philosophical discourses. They are
exclusive devotional songs in praise of Lord Nārāyana. At the same time, the Vedantic dictum that
the truth is ultimately one, finds expression in the hymns.
The basic philosophical assumption of the hymns of the Alvarsis that the reality is one.[27] The one reality Visnu has become Brahma,
Visnu and Siva.[28] He is the world, sea, air, ... lives and
haughtiness.[29] He is the water, earth, fire, air and sky.[30] He has become gods, humans, animals and
plants.[31] He is the five senses and the five elements.[32]
He creates heaven, fire, sea, air, etc.[33]
And he is the cause for the creation.[34] He is the one behind all.[35] He is the cause, means and the effect.[36] He is the cause for Brahma, Siva and Indra.[37]
Tirumalisai writes you are the soul of devas, humans, animals and plants.[38]
According to Nammālvār He is the indweller of other gods.[39]
And He is indweller of Brahman, Siva and Indra.[40]
He lives with people who think of him in their hearts.[41] He is responsible for all actions.[42] The Vedas could not clearly reveal the Lord
and therefore, they call him “It”.[43] The lord has for his possession, the acit [nonliving] and cit [living beings].[44] He is in deva
[Isvara], cit and acit.[45]
According to Nammālvār, soul [Atman] is the property of
God i.e., it is eternal.[46] In contrast to Sankara’s monism, it is said
that there is possibility for jivatma and
paramatma to become one, but can the
two become one?[47]
The consideration of the Alvars that the one God is responsible for all beings, both living
and nonliving, religions and gods finds substantial expression in their
attitude towards other religions. B. R.
Purushothama Naidu suggested that the philosophical notion of the Alvarsviz. acit, cit, and Isvara might be traced back to the Tamil
classic Kalithokai.[48] This is an evidence for the strong
affiliation of Alvarsto the Tamil
tradition.
5.3 Religious
Situation
Before analyzing the religious
attitude of each Ālvār it needs to be
remembered that there was unfriendly relationship between religions.[49] There was hostile attitude between the
Vaisnavas and the Śaivas. It is said the Saivas were definitely more
aggressive and outspokenly hostile towards their rival creeds.[50] When it came to Buddhism and Jainism, both
Vaisnavas and the Śaivas worked together. R. Champaka Lakshmi writes, “that
the nature of the response to non–orthodox challenge was direct and the
opposition unequivocal in both the Saiva and Vaisnava hymns is quite clear.”[51] With this background the attitude of each Ālvār may be studied.
5.3.1 General
Religious Condition during the First Three Alvars
The general view about the religious condition of the
first three Alvars was that they lived
in a time when religious tolerance was prevailing. Moreover, it was the time of Pallavas, who
respected tolerance among religions. To authenticate this situation it is
stated that, “…the first three Alwars lived at a time when the rigid sectarian
creeds had not developed.”[52] It is also suggested that, “the first Alwars
witnessed no jarring alien faiths in their time…”[53]
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri says, “the devotion of these early saints is gentle,
simple devotion, altogether free from an intolerant sectarian outlook.”[54] In other words a spirit of tolerance is in
evidence in the poems of these early Alvars.[55]
The first three
Alvarsare praised for their tolerant attitude towards other faiths. At the
same time their approach towards Śaivites was not static. With regard to their relation to the Jains
and the Buddhists it is said that ‘the first three Alwars make no mention of
the Jaina or Buddhist creeds’. The reason given is that it is probable that
they lived at a time when those creeds had not appeared in south India.[56] Another possible reason may be that these two
religions could have enjoyed unquestionable royal patronage. This is a
significant fact because the antagonism towards Buddhism and Jainism is more in
the works of the later Alvars.
The problem with these opinions is that each scholar has
picked up the suitable attitude relevant to him or her, and ignored the
other. A textual study of the works of
the first three Alvars will reveal
that the attitude of the Alvars towards
Saivites on the one hand and Buddhists and Jains on the other was in a
flux.
5.3.1.1
Poygai Ālvār
The attitude of Poyai Ālvār towards other Hindu sects,
especially Śaivism is not the same always.
For him Tirumāl is superior to Śiva.
In his Mudal Tiruvandādi he
maintained that Tirumāl created all gods.[57] He also stated that besides all living
beings, Tirumāl protects Brahma[58]
and removes the curse of Śiva.[59] And He is the cause for Śiva.[60] After stating that Śiva could not understand
Tirumāl[61]
the superiority of Tirumāl is underlined by describing forcefully the
differences between Tirumāl and Śiva in their names, vehicles, scriptures,
functions, weapons and color:
ciu-E}y@/ kiw; ciwa[k@ nfhapy@ - tiuePh@;
Besides, there is also a mild response towards Śaivism that,
Tirumāl is the indweller of Śiva. This
is expressed as: though Śiva is the body, Tirumāl is the Ātman of Śiva,[[ [nkdp xd@W].[63] He protects Śiva from within, in the form of
Atman.[64] Here too, the superiority of Visnu is maintained
as He is not just the indweller but prominent among the first three deities –
Brahma, Visnu and Śiva.[65]
The distance between Visnu and Śiva is further reduced by
saying that, Śiva lives in a corner of Tirumāl’s body[66]
and He is the body of Tirumāl.[67] These expressions are often considered as
marks of equality and symbolized in the form of Hari-Hara [Śiva-Visnu]
worship. R. Krishnaswami Aiyangar
states, “the Mudal Ālvārs praised both Visnu and Śiva at same time and viewed
the Almighty in Hari Hara form.”[68]
It is evident that there is a constant shift from creator to indweller and
indweller to equal.
The most positive way of considering Śaivism, according
to Mudal Tiruvandādi is to place Śiva
and Visnu as the manifestation of the one supreme reality [Tirumāl]. The poem reads that Brahma, Visnu and Śiva
are first deities; Tirumāl is their indweller and he is the cause for them.[69] A. Pandurangan says, “Poykai Alwar
synthesizes the name of Visnu and Śiva.
For him Visnu and Siva are the manifestations of the one and the same
Almighty.”[70]
S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar is right in suggesting that the earliest Alvarseven go to the extent of
describing Śiva and Visnu as one, although they do recognize the united form
as Visnu.[71]
In spite of the superior claims of Poygāi, which is
anybody’s religious obligation, his willingness to suggest that Śiva, Visnu and
Brahma are the manifestations of the One Supreme Reality, Tirumāl, is
significant in a multi religious context.
It is remarkable that there is no reference to Jainism
and Buddhism in the one hundred verses of the Mudal Tiruvandādi. It may be
because there was paramount royal support to these religions. Further the early rulers did not encourage
intolerance among religions.
5.3.1.2
Pūtattālvār
Pūtattālvār adds another dimension to the superiority of
Tirumāl. For him, Tirumāl is the God of
Śiva[72]
and Śiva, Brahma etc. worship
Tirumāl.[73] Like the confessional language of the Bible
[I am the way] the Ālvār presents
Tirumāl as the right means to the right place.
The destination is ‘Vaikuntam’[74],
the world of Visnu, which is greater than Moksha. He writes, others can get knowledge of God[75]
and ‘Moksha’[76],
but Vaisnavites alone can reach Parama
patham[77],
the supreme feet of the Lord. His
exclusive out look is expressed as, I do not consider as human beings, those
who forget the name of Tirumāl.[78]
This,
in fact, is an orthodox response to Śaivism, which can be found among good
number of people in all faith-traditions.
Like the
previous Ālvār, Pūtattālvār did not
mention about the Jains or the Buddhists in the hundred verses of Irandām Tiruvandādi. As he was a contemporary of the previous Ālvār the political and social condition
could have remained the same.
5.3.1.3
Peyālvār
Peyālvār
maintained the superiority of Tirumāl by saying that He is beyond the
comprehension of Brahma, Śiva and Indra[79]. At the same time his description that Visnu
counted the ten heads of Rāvanā from the lap of Brahman[80]
was an eye-opener to the view that, the one reality takes different forms to
carry out diverse missions. Hence, it
may not be appropriate to place one deity alone at the top.
Like the
other two Mudal Alvars, Pey Ālvār too did not make any reference to Jainism or
Buddhism in the one hundred verses of his Mūnrām
Tiruvandādi. The reasons attributed
to the first two Alvarsmay be
relevant here as well.
5.3.2
Religious Condition During the Time of Tirumaliśai Ālvār
The religious condition prevailed during the time of
Tirumalisai Ālvār was fairly
different from the time of earlier Alvars.
Nilakanta Sastri writes, “his poems show a more controversial tone than those
of the first three Alvarsand this was
quite natural to his age.”[81] N. Subbu Reddiar pointed out that, from the
general tenor of his poems it might be inferred that he should have lived at a
period when the Jains, Buddhists and Śaivites were struggling for religious
supremacy.[82] It was not just struggle for supremacy
alone. “Perhaps the period when this Ālvār was living was marked by the
aggressive preaching of the Jains, Buddhists and Śaivites when the adherents of
these faiths chose to assert their individual worth by casting disparaging
comments on one another.”[83] This new situation can be further inferred
from the works of the Ālvār.
5.3.2.1
Religious Attitude of Tirumaliśai Ālvār
The religious attitude of Tirumaliśai Ālvār is
significant because he was a Śaiva saint who became an Ālvār. After becoming a
Vaisnavite “he eulogized the supremacy of God Vishnu.”[84] His conversion incident is a testimony to the
supremacy of Visnu. About the
conversion of the Ālvār it is said
that Śiva could not answer and meet the challenges and needs of the Ālvār.[85]
Further, “from his
own writings what is evident is that he was well-conversant with other schools
of thought including ‘Śaivism, Jainism and Buddhism, that he practiced yoga
over a long period and acquired tremendous yogic power and that he established
conclusively that Nārāyana is the supreme deity (paratattva).”[86] He maintained that Tirumāl is creator[87]
and protector of other gods, particularly, Śiva and Brahma.[88] He removed the faults of Śiva and Brahma.[89] Śiva, Brahma and other deities worshiped
Tirumāl [90]
because He is God for them.[91]
The greatness of Tirumāl over against Śiva is stressed in
the works of Tirumaliśai. He says Śiva
cannot be equated with Tirumāl.[92] He is not worthy to greet Tirumāl.[93] Śiva cannot see him.[94] Tirumāl is different from Śiva and Brahma
because the later two were born of the womb[95]
while the former has no birth at all.
Tirumāl determines the end of Śiva and Brahma.[96] He defeated Siva.[97]
N. Subbu Reddiar remarks that, “in particular, the several incidents are
enumerated to prove that Śiva is definitely inferior to Visnu.”[98] It is confirmed in the works of Tirumaliśai.
Tirumaliśai vehemently denounced people, who worshiped
other gods. In his words, those who do
not praise Tirumāl are base-people.[99]
He appealed that even if you do not
worship Tirumāl never worship other gods.[100] No doubt, Tirumaliśai Ālvār has elevated Tirumāl above all other deities.
Apart from these
superiority claims, the conviction of Tirumāliśai, that the reality is one is
as deep as his conviction that the supreme reality is Tirumāl. He writes, God is one; whatever means people
adopt, the reward comes by the grace of Tirumāl.[101] He is Visnu, Brahma, Rudra and all gods.[102] He has become the numerous deities.[103] The idea that the reality is one and the one
itself has manifested in manifold forms in order to save life, is an indication
for the openness of the Ālvār.
The earlier Alvarsmade
reference to Śaivism but Tirumaliśai adds Jainism and Buddhism in his works.
According to J. S. M. Hooper, “they contain an interesting and superior
reference to Jains, Buddhists, and Siva Bhaktas.”[104] The nature of these references may be
analyzed here below.
There is no hostile or otherwise reference to Jainism and
Buddhism in the one hundred and twenty verses of Tiruccanda Viruttam. At the
same time there are two direct references to Buddhism and Jainism among the
ninety-six verses of Nānmukan
Tiruvandādi. One verse states,
Tirumāl entraps the ignorant people into the other six religions.[105] The six religions include Jainism and
Buddhism. The six religions are: [1]
Charvaka [2] Jaina [3] Buddha [4] Niyaya and Vaisesika [5] Sankya and Yoga and
[6] Pasupathas.[106] It appears that the response of
Thirumāliśai towards Buddhism and Jainism was not as aggressive as it was
towards Śaivism.
Nevertheless, tradition says that he proclaimed; we have
learnt the religion of the Sakhya (Buddhism), we have learnt the religion of
the Sramana (Jainism), we have examined the Agama of Sankaranar (Saiva Agama);
but by fortunate good luck we have come to rest our faith in the Black One with
red-eyes and got rid of all that is evil.[107] His orthodox mind-set prompted him to be
belligerent and exclusive in his attitude.
M. S. Purnalingam Pillai said, “in his Anthathi, he spits his venom against the Saivas, Jains and
Buddhists….”[108]
The stand taken by Thirumāliśai is certainly different from the previous Alvars.
5.3.3
Religious Attitude of Tondaradippodi Ālvār
The Tondaradippodi’s
deep commitment to his own religion prompted him to be antagonistic towards
other religions. It is said that his
faith in Visnu was so deep that he became intolerant of other sects.[109]
His response towards Śaivism was not so friendly. Although there is no specific reference in Tiruppalli-elucci, the one found in the Tirumālai is sufficient to understand
his mind. He says, it is Narayana who
created several lower gods everywhere.[110] This is another example for exclusive
attitude towards Śaivism and other sects within Hinduism. He maintained that there is no god except
Tirumāl.[111] S. Ramani remarked that, “though he is pious
poet the elements of anti-Saivite bigotry have entered his poetry making him a
prejudiced Vaisnavite.”[112]
Similarly, there is no direct reference to Jainism and
Buddhism in the ten verses of Tiruppalli-elucci. In contrast, there are two references among
the forty-five verses of Tirumālai. One reference puts forth two questions. Can people well educated in sastras see Buddhism and Jainism, which
are lower dharmas? Or hear with ear?[113]
A more aggressive and antagonistic tone is found in
another verse, which says, I cannot hear the denouncement of the ungodly
Buddhists and Jains about you (Tirumal); if happened to hear such abuse, it
shall be better die of such sickness; if opportunity is given to offend, it
shall be better cut the head of the abuser:
This is the most impolite account found about Buddhists
and Jains in the entire works of Alvars. Because of his animosity Nilakanta Sastri
suggested that his intolerance of Buddhism and Jainism was nearly as great as
that of Tirumangai.[115] He was totally hostile towards Buddhists and
Jains. In other words his poems
condemned the Buddhists and Jains.[116] This goes against the positive responses of
the other Alvars. It is indeed a fanatic and crude way of
responding to people of other faiths.
There is a possibility of considering these texts as metaphorical
usages.
5.3.4
Attitude of Kulaśekhara Ālvār
Kulaśekhara Ālvār’s response to Śaivism was akin to that
of the other Alvarsmentioned
earlier. He emphasizes that Śiva, other
gods and sages worship Tirumāl.[117] Tirumāl is the giver of the fruits of
sacrifices offered by Śiva, Brahma and Indra.[118] The Ālvār
clearly affirms that Tirumāl is the supreme deity.
Simultaneously he maintains a kind of linkage between
Tirumāl and other gods. This is a unique
character pertained to Hinduism. Each
sect maintains that the deity of that particular sect is superior to the
others. It also suggests the prevalent
influence of purānic stories in the devotional life of Hindus.
It is not easy to analyze Kulaśekhara Ālvār’s response to
Buddhism and Jainism. The one hundred
and five verses of Perumāl Tirumoli
do not bear any direct reference to these two religions. The birth account of the Ālvār suggests his fervent devotion to Rama. Bimanbehari Majumdar says, “among the
incarnations of Visnu he offers homage to Rāma and Krsna.”[119] It is significant that he was devoted to his
God without relegating and denouncing other religions.
5.3.5
Approach of Tirupān Ālvār
Tirupānālvār was an out caste. His devotion to Tirumāl was so profound that
he sang praises to Him from afar although he was not allowed to enter the
temple. He has maintained the
pre-eminence of Tirumāl by asserting that Tirumāl removed the sorrow of Śiva.[120]
He has made no reference to Jainism and Buddhism in the
ten verses of his Amalanādipirān. It may be because, as the title of the work
indicates, he was committed to establish the unblemished character of Tirumāl.
5.3.6
Religious Condition at the Time of Tirumańgai Ālvār
About Tirumańgai’s relation with Śaivism it is generally
held that he evinced a more friendly attitude and there are many resemblances
in literary form and religious sentiments between Ñānasambandar, one of the
Saiva saint, and Tirumangai. Although he
was not fully hostile to Śaivas, he never failed to maintain the primacy of
Visnu. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar remarks,
“it is possible to detect occasional reference to the inferiority of Siva in
his grace–bestowing quality to Vishnu, but of pronounced hostility to the
Saivas there is perhaps not very much.”[121] On the other hand, there are scholars who
have held that “in religion, he was an obdurate Vaishnava and always rose
superior to the Saivites in theological contentions.”[122] This may be evidence to his skill in
refutation. Still further, “he plundered
the refractory Saivas and lived a free and easy life with his ill–gotten
wealth.”[123] These views can be clarified from his works.
Tirumańgai’s
response to Śaivism is the combination of different modes. In the first place he maintains that Tirumāl
created Brahma and Brahma created Śiva.[124] Secondly, Tirumāl removed the curse of Śiva.[125]
In the third place, Śiva and Brahma worship Tirumāl.[126] Further Tirumāl is greater than Śiva because
Śiva could not understand him.[127] Even the six other religions could not
comprehend him.[128] He is the cause for Śiva and Brahma.[129] He is the foremost of Śiva, Brahma and Indra
and has no comparison.[130]
Another
mode of response is a kind of attempt to maintain the equality of gods. It is said Tirumāl has Brahma, Śiva and Indra
as his body.[131] This can also be used to interpret that
Tirumāl is sheltering the other deities.
Another way of positively looking at this verse is that there is close
relation between deities. Even Tirumāl
cannot function without his body [other gods].
A more
optimistic response to Śaivism is seen in the texts where Tirumāl is depicted
as taking different forms. That is, the
one God takes different forms. It is
said Tirumāl has become Śiva, Brahma and Visnu and lives in them, and
appoints them.[132] He has become three in order to continue
creation.[133]
The Ālvār advises people to meditate upon Tirumāl,
the supreme object as three forms – Brahma, Visnu and Siva.[134] He pervades the whole world in the form of
three gods – Brahma, Visnu and Siva, and in the two forms of joy and sorrow:
It is very important because the central expression of
Hinduism is that the one God takes various forms and the one is worshipped in
various ways. The Vaisnavites call the
one as Tirumal, a southern name, and Narayana, a philosophical name, and Visnu,
a northern name.
5.3.6.1
Buddhism and Jainism
With regard to Jains and Buddhists Tirumańgai was the
most intolerant among the Alvars. His main opponents were Jains and
Buddhists. He had used his skills to
extol his own God and to offend other religions. It is said, “his hymns, and they are many,
are equally full of good poetry and attacks on Jainism and Buddhism.”[136]
For Nilakanta Sastri his attitude towards Jains and Buddhists was negative.[137] His hatred towards Buddhism in particular is
very obvious. He had stolen a solid
golden image of Buddha from a monastery in Nagapatam to meet the expenses for
renovating the temple of Srīrangam.
Among all the Alvars,
Tirumańgai has six works to his credit.
Of the six, four works - Tirukkuruntāndakam,
Tirunedimtāndakam, Śiriya Tirumadal and Periya Tirumadal have no direct
reference to Buddhism and Jainism. The
other two works – Periya Tirumoli and
Tiruvelukūrrirukkai contain
references to them. Periya Tirumoli contains nine direct references out of the one
thousand and eighty four verses. Tiruvelukūrrirukkai has one
reference. The way Tirumangai confronts
the Buddhists and Jains looks like the way Jesus was accusing the Pharisees and
Sadducees of their orthodoxy.
Tirumańgai maintained that Tirumāl could not be known by
the six religions,[138]
which include Jainism and Buddhism. The
greatness of Tirumāl is again stated as Tirumāl enjoys even the opportunistic
talk of the ignorant Jains and Buddhists.[139]
The Ālvār tries
to accuse that the Jains and Buddhists practice things for namesake. He writes, do not respect the speech of the
Jains who observe fast and roam on the street, who love rice and porridge and
go away from the people who know the Vedas.[140] Tirumańgai again accused the Jains and
Buddhists as people lacking morality. He
says saffron clothed and bald headed Jains compete among themselves, eat with
relatives and make their body heavy.[141] He attacks them more vehemently as, the Jains
make useless arguments and establish their religion; it is pitiable to see
their eyes blinking as they thrust curd-rice in the throat.[142]
Another category of accusation was that the Jains and
Buddhists do not respect Vedas, and they do not believe in God. As they do not believe the Vedas they are out
of the purview of the Vedas. It is said
the Jains loiter fearless and shameless; hate them for they do not have respect
for Vedas and do not have worship of God:
Although they do not believe in the Vedic God, they
assert that there is a head [leader] for all the wonders.[144] He condemns them, as God will not be merciful
to the saffron dressed Buddhists and the unclean Jains because they are out of
the compass of the Vedas.[145] The Buddhists and the Jains are further
accused. The Ālvār writes I will not agree with the dirty Jains and the
Buddhists who worship lower deities.[146]
The Ālvār is
delighted for not being involved in the religiosity of the Jains and Buddhists.[147] He appeals to his heart that my heart (you)
do not accept them (Jains and Buddhists)[148]
and ignore the cunning works of the Jains and Buddhists from which they chant.[149]
Besides these textual evidences, his life story also
conveys that he was a fanatic Vaisnava.
He stole an idol from Buddhist monastery to renovate the Vaisnava Temple
and drowned the employees who asked for the wages. His answer to these crude acts was that he
did all those for the service of the Lord.
Tirumańgai is the most aggressive of all the Alvarsin their response to Jainsm and
Buddhism. It may be because he was a
ruler, convert to Vaisnavism and infatuated towards his wife.
5.3.7
Religious Condition During the Time of Periyālvār
The religious condition during the time of Periyālvār may
be understood from the following account.
It is said, the Ālvār won a
religious disputation in the court of the Pāndya king Srimāra Srīvallabha
(815-62).[150] Thus he earned the title of Pattarpirān the
Brahman chief.[151] The disputation was to prove that, who was
the real or supreme God. In the
assembly, he recited the relevant scriptural texts and established conclusively
Nārāyana is the Paratattva.[152] Such atmosphere is an indication to show that
there were religious disputations as well.
Periyālvār’s response to Śaivism and other strands of
Hinduism reveals his intention to speak for the greatness of Tirumāl. He writes Tirumāl is beyond the comprehension
of Śiva and Brahma.[153] He alone knows the medicine for the disease
of births.[154] He removes the calamities of Brahma, Siva and
Indra.[155]
It is difficult to judge the response of Periyālvār
towards Buddhism and Jainism because there is no direct reference to them in
the four hundred and sixty one verses of Periyālvār Tirumoli and the twelve
verses of Tiruppallāndu.
Periyālvār’s response to people of other faiths, in
general is quite negative in nature. He
writes why did Tirumāl create the sinners who do not think of him?[156] Those who do not worship Tirumāl are disease
and dishonor to their mothers.[157] Even their dress and the water they drink are
prone to be sinners.[158] They are burden to the earth; grab the rice
they eat and thrust grass.[159]
This form of response is very exclusive in nature. It needs to be realized that, such exclusive
claims and languages go against the genuine spirituality of any
faith-tradition.
5.3.8 Āndāl’s
Religious Attitude
Āndāl’s attitude to Hindus other than the Vaisnavites is
neither positive nor negative. She
solemnly upholds the highness of her God.
According to her, Tirumāl created gods like Brahma to create the world.[160] He saves the thirty-three crore of gods from
their calamities[161]
and he deserves worship.[162]
There is no direct reference to Buddhists and Jains in
the thirty verses of Tiruppāvai and
one hundred and forty-three verses of Nācciyār
Tirumoli. It may be because her poems are concentrated on ‘bridal
mysticism’.
5.3.9 Religious
Condition at the Time of Nammālvār
About his own religious preference, Trivedi Krishnaji
writes “Nammalvar exhibited intense longing and ardent devotion for Krishna.”[163] He always emphasized that serving the deity
is the easiest way one can reach the spiritual height. Privilege to serve at the feet of the Lord is
superior to liberation from this world or moksha.
K. K. A. Venkatachari puts forward that “he himself has
spoken of service of God as the greatest gift of God, exceeding even the matter
of liberation from the cycle of births.”[164] Surendranath Dasgupta expands the same view
as “he describes God’s noble qualities, and shows that the realization of the
proximity of God is much more desirable than the attainment of
emancipation. He says that the true
definition of moksa is to attain the
position of God’s servant.”[165]
Nammālvār’s attitude towards other religions is important
to judge the general attitude of Alvars towards
other religions. Because, most studies
on Vaisnavism revolve around Nammālvār.
His collection, particularly Tiruvaymozhi
is the corner stone for the later developments in Vaishnavism, including the
philosophy of Rāmānuja. The general
notion is “…Nammalvar lived at a time when the land was almost free from alien
religious influences and when the Vaishnavas and Saivas were at peace.”[166] Many are of the same view. Again it is stressed that, “his pathikams
bear no marks of the persecution of the Jains and Buddhists nor do they contain
any bitter invectives against them.”[167]
Yet, the real attitude of Nammālvār may be decided only on the basis of his
works.
5.3.9.1 Attitude
Towards Śaivism
In spite of his tolerant outlook, Nammālvār’s relation
with Śaivas was not so different from the orthodox ones. S. Krishnaswami
Aiyangar remarked that, “he is a little more of a Vaishnava and continues to
regard these Saivas with sympathy no doubt, but does not generally give Siva
the same pedestal that the earlier Alvars do.”[168] At least to this extent no Ālvār was an exception. Even the mildest of the Alvarsmaintained the superiority of Tirumāl over all other deities,
particularly Śiva.
Nammālvār writes, Tirumāl created many gods, including
Brahma, Śiva and Indra.[169] Further he says that Tirumāl saved Śiva from
his suffering.[170]
He protects Brahma and other deities.[171]
Śiva and Brahma take refuge in him.[172] Śiva, Brahma, Indra and others worship
Tirumāl.[173]
The superiority of Tirumāl is further strengthened. The Ālvār
says Tirumāl is the head [leader] of Śiva and Brahma, Indra and other gods.[174] The idea that Tirumāl is the indweller of
Siva and other gods is vivid in the works of Nammālvār.[175]For
example:
mtuth@ jkjkJ mwpt[ mwp tiftif
mtuth@ ,iwath@ Fiwt[,yh@; ,iwath@
Apart from the verses, which indicate superior position
to Tirumāl, there are a few verses, which maintain equality between Tirumāl and
other gods. They are in the form of
suggesting that Śiva and Brahma are living in the body of Tirumāl.[177]
The salient aspect of Nammālvār’s response to Śaivism and
other Hindu religious orders was his profound reference to the idea that the
one reality, Tirumāl, has taken different forms. Or the many gods are the different forms of
Tirumāl. Tirumāl has sheltered Śiva and
Brahma in his body and he himself is both Śiva and Brahma.[178] He has become Brahma, Visnu and Śiva.[179] And Tirumāl dwells within Śiva and Brahma; he
functions them and he himself appears in those forms.[180]
The ‘one-many’ approach shall be considered further in order to explicate its
relevance for a contemporary Christian theology of religions.
5.3.9.2
Attitude towards Jainism and Buddhism
Nammālvār’s attitude to Jainism and Buddhism was the
mildest of all the responses. There are
two direct references to Jainism and Buddhism in the eleven hundred and two
verses of Tiruvāymoli and one
verse among the hundred verses of Tiruviruttam.
The Ālvār says
that others, including the Jains and Buddhists cannot measure the auspicious
characters of Tirumāl by arguments.[181] A more inclusive verse says that Nārāyana is
the indweller of the gods worshipped by Jains, Buddhists etc.
,yp'@fj@J ,l@l g[uhzj@jPUk@
kype;J bre;bey; fthp tPRk;
jpUf;FUTh; mjD}s;
bghype;J epd;w gpuhd; fz;Oh; xd;Wk;
bgha; ,y;iy. nghw;Wkpnd.[182]
Nammālvār’s milder and more positive attitude to Buddhism
and Jainism is very significant, while other Alvarshave not made such attempts.
In Tiruviruttam,
it is upheld that Tirumāl has created all the religions and gods.[183] This is another effort of Nammālvār to reduce
the distance between his own faith and other faith-traditions. In general the beauty is that Jainism and
Buddhism are considered on par with other faith-traditions. It is also made obvious that the same God is
worshipped in all faith-traditions. And
Tirumāl is responsible for the emergence of all religions and gods.
5.3.10
Madhurakavi’s Attitude
As Madhurakavi is committed to gurubhakti, he has not made any reference to other strands of
Hinduism or Buddhism and Jainism in the eleven verses of Kanninūn-Śiruttāmbu. These
verses are not about God, but about his guru,
Nammālvār. S. M. Srinivasa Chari maintains, “this poetical work of Madhurakavi
has provided the doctrine of ācārya–bhakti
which constitutes the corner–stone of the Vaisnava theology.”[184] The Vaisnavites are proud of their
Ācāryas. As Madhurakavi’s concentration
was wholly on his guru his own
reflections about his attitude towards other religions is not clear in his
work.
Summary
The general notion about the attitude of the first three Alvarstowards other religions was
passive. It is passive because the hymns do not represent any sense of
intolerance. The reason could be that,
the rival sects were not developed then.
There is no reference to Jains and Buddhists. Their relation with Śaivism was double
edged. Sometime there was a tendency to
bring together Śiva and Visnu in the form of Hari Hara. At other times, the Alvarsused exclusive language to maintain the absoluteness of
Visnu. It does not mean that the
language was aggressive, antagonistic or intolerant.
It is said Poygai synthesized Śiva and Visnu. They are also stated to be the manifestation
of the same God. But his work places
Śiva as the body and Narayana as the spirit.
Here is the ‘oneness’ of the two, with a preponderance of Visnu. Pūtattālvār extols the all sufficiency of
Tirumāl. His exclusive claim goes to the
extent of suggesting that worshipping other gods is a mistake. Peyālvār emphasized the greatness of Nārāyana
by saying that, He is the one who is spoken about in the Vedas and hence, He is
above all gods. Of course, all religions
use exclusive language. It is their
right. It looks none of these three Alvarswere concerned with the other
struggles around them. Nor they did
anything that might affect or motivate the society.
The struggle and aggressive preaching among Jains,
Buddhists and Śaivas marked the time of Tirumaliśai. The Ālvār
used condemnatory language about other religions. Other religious people were disregarded. Often it is stressed that Śiva was inferior
to Visnu. The antagonistic attitude of
the Ālvār reflects the psychology of
converts. But there was no effort to
create one nation, one religion, one culture and one people, as often seen in
the contemporary India.
Another Ālvār
who vehemently raised his voice against other gods and people was
Tondaradippodi. The intensity of his
orthodoxy can be compared to that of Tirumańgai. Tondaradippodi was intolerant towards other
religions. His hostility towards
Buddhists, Jains and Śaivas was stark. His
language was very crude. He went to the
extent of writing, that it will be better to chop the head of one who
blasphemies against Tirumāl.
Kulaśekara Ālvār was considered to be well educated. He
gave up his throne for the sake of serving god and his devotees. His work is milder and there is no scope of
derogatory remarks about other gods, people and religions. Tiruppān Ālvār was the apt example to declare
that a devotee of fifth varna could
reach the position of Ālvārhood. Like Kulaśekhara, he too, never used
condemnatory remarks about other people, religions and gods.
The most intolerant of the Alvarswas Tirumańgai a ruler who became a Vaisnavite in order to
marry a Vaisnava girl of his choice. It
is feared that, his aggressive nature may be the outcome of
convert-psychology. He used abusive
language against Śaivas, Buddhists, and Jains.
For him people who do not worship Visnu are not humans. The incident of plundering a Buddha statue
for the construction of wall in a Vaisnava temple illustrates his caliber. There was orthodoxy and fanaticism in
him. But there was no advocacy of
brutality.
Periyālvār was said to have proved in the court of Pandya
king that Visnu is the only supreme deity.
His adopted daughter Āndāl also extensively magnified her loving
devotion to God. Without attacking other
religions she convincingly displayed that Visnu is the one ultimate.
The popular notion about the attitude of Nammālvār was
that he lived in a time, when there were no sectarian clashes. On the contrary, he maintained the
all-pervading nature of Tirumal by arguing that He is the creator of the world
and gods. He is the abode of other
deities. And He is the indweller of
these deities. It was remarkable that he
suggested all the religions worship only Tirumāl. Hence, they can give up their way of worship
and worship Tirumāl. The Ālvār hints at the significance of
morality but has not stressed very much.
Although it is held that there are humanistic tinges in the Alvars, the general outlook is different. There is a predilection for escaping from the
world to enjoy the presence of God.
Madhurakavi, the last in the list was settled with his Guru Nammālvār
and was less concerned with others.
[1]S. M. Srinivasa Chari, Vaisnavism, its Philosophy, Theology and
Religious Discipline, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1994,
p.23.
[2]J. S. M. Hooper, Hymns of the ĀLVĀRS, Op. Cit., pp.6 – 7.
[3]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.692.
[4]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2094, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
6.
[7]Francis X. Clooney, Seeing Through Texts: Doing Theology Among
the Srīvaisnavas of South India. New Delhi, Sri Satguru Publicatins, A
Division of Indian Books Centre, First Indian Edition, 1997, p.181.
[8]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2138, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
20.
[9]Francis X. Clooney, Seeing Through Texts: Doing Theology Among
the Srīvaisnavas of South India. Op. Cit., p. 181.
[11]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nānmukan Tiruvandādi, Verse 2452, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 26.
[12]Periyālvār, Tiruppallāndu, Verse 5, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 16.
& Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 2006, [Periya Tirumoli], Volume I, p. 394.
[13]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 957,[Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 8.
[14]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2132, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
18.
[15]Periyālvār, Periyālvār Tirumoli, Verse 381, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 154.
[16]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2139, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 20. & Ibid., Verse 2101, Volume II, p.8. &
Pūtattālvār, Irandām Tiruvandādi,
Verse 2215, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 46. & Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 2954, [Tiruvāymoli],
Volume II, p. 22.
[17]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda Viruttam, Verse 849, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram, Volume I, p. 328.
[18]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 2955, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 22.
[20]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Tiruneduntāndakam,
Verse 2056, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 412.
[21]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2127, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 16.
[22]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nanmukan Tiruvandādi, Verse 2470, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p.130.
[23]Kulaśekhara Ālvār, Perumāl Tirumoli, Verse 660, [Mudalāyiram],
Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.266.
[24]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nanmukan Tiruvandādi, Verse 2392, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Vol. II, p.108.
My
ancient lord has a tall crown and a wreath of Tulasi over it.
Contemplate on him firmly, fold
your hands in obeisance and
strew fresh flowers, Lower your
head at his feet, let your
tongue praise him, let your eyes see him, let
your ears hear him.
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, The sacred Book of Four Thousand, Jaladampet, (Chennai), Sri
Sadagopan Tirunarayanaswami Divya Prabandha Pathasala, 2000, p.669.]
[25]Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume III,
Op. Cit., p.69.
[26]S. M. Srinivasa Chari, ‘Preface’ in Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the
Ālvārs, Op. Cit., p. XIII.
[27]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nanmukan Tiruvandādi, Verse 2383, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p.106.
[28]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3176, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 96.
[29]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2177, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
30.
[30]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3539, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
224.
[32]Pūtattālvār, Irandām Tiruvandādi, Verse 2205, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 44.
[33]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2173, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.30.
[35]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nanmukan Tiruvandādi, Verse 2435, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p.120.
[36]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3076, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 62.
[38]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nanmukan Tiruvandādi, Verse 2386, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p.106.
[39]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3334, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II,p.150.
[41]Pūtattālvār, Irandām Tiruvandādi, Verse 2321, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II,
p. 82.
[42]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 2904, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 4.
[43]Pūtattālvār, Irandām Tiruvandādi, Verse 2264, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 60.
[44]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 2901, [Tiruvāymoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 4.
[48]B. R. Purushothama Naidu, Tiruvāymoli, ĪTTIN TAMILĀKKAM, Fourth
Edition,Volume 1,(Hymns 1-110) Madras, University of Madras,1980,pp. cv &
cU..
[49]T. Gnanasundaram, Vainava Uraivalam, Op.Cit.,
p.263.
[50]R. Meera, “A Note on the Bhakti
Movement in Tamil Nadu.” N. N. Bhattachatyya, ed., Medieval Bhakti Movements in
India, [Srī Caitanya Quincentenary Commemoration Volume], New Delhi, Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers
Pvt. Ltd., 1999,
p.189.
[51]R. Champaka Lakshmi, “Religion and
Social Change in Tamil Nadu (C.AD 600 – 1300)”,
N. N. Bhattacharyya, ed., Medieval Bhakti Movements in India,
Op. Cit., p.167.
[52]Trivedi Krishnaji, Mahatmas: Acharyas, Mystics, Saints, Sages,
Seers, Tiruchi, Shivaji News Printers, 1971, p.65.
[53]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Revised and Enlarged.,
New Delhi / Madras, Asian Educational Services, 1994, p.183.
[54]K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India from Prehistoric
Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar,
Second Edition, Madras, Oxford University Press, 1958, p.415.
[56]Trivedi Krishnaji, Mahatmas : Acharyas, Mystics, Saints, Sages,
Seers,
Op. Cit., p.64.
[57]Poygai Ālvār, Mudal Tiruvandādi, Verse 2088, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p. 6.
His
names are Hara and Narayana; his mounts the bull and the bird;
his texts, the Agamas and Vedas;
his abodes the mount kailasa
and the Ocean of Milk, his works
dissolution and protection;
his weapons the spear and the
discus; his hue, the fire.
[Translation from
Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit.,
p.621.]
[68]R. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South
India, Madras, The Oxford University Press, 1920, pp. 77-78.
[70]A. Pandurangan “Bhakti Literature and
Human values”. Journal of Tamil
Studies, 43 & 44, June & December
1993, p.178.
[71]S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South India,
Madras, The Oxford University Press, 1920, pp. 77-78.
[79]Pey Ālvār, Mūnrām Tiruvandādi, Verse 2306, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 78 & Verse 2378, p.98.
[81]Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Fourth Edition, Madras, Oxford University
Press, 1975, p.426.
[82]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.179.
[84]Trivedi Krishnaji, Mahatmas : Acharyas, Mystics, Saints, Sages,
Seers,
Op. Cit., p.66.
[85]S. Jahathurachagan, Guruparamparipravagam, Chennai, Ālvārgal
Aivu
Miyam, 1994, p.17.
[86]S. M. Srinivasa Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the
Ālvārs,
Op. Cit., p.17.
[87]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nānmukan
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2382, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 106.
[90]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda Viruttam, Volume I, Verse
760,p.302 &
Verse 838,p.324.
[91]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nānmukan
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2477, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p.132.
Volume II, p.122, & Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda
Viruttam, Verse 822, [Periya Tirumoli],
Nālāyiram, Volume I, p.320.
[98]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.627.
[99]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nānmukan
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2387, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p.106.
[101]Ibid., Verse 2385, p.106.
[102]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Tiruccanda Viruttam, Verse 758, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram, Volume I, p.302.
[104]J. S. M. Hooper, Hymns of the ĀLVĀRS, Oxford University Press, 1929, p.12.
[105]Tirumaliśai Ālvār, Nānmukan
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2419, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p.116.
[106]Bhagavat
Visayam, ed.by
Krishnaswami Ayangar, Sri Sudarsanar Trust, Tiruchirapalli, Vol. II, 1985,
p.497.
[107]S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South India,
Op. Cit., pp.78 – 79.
[108]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.186.
[109]N. Subbu Reddiar, Religion and Philosophy of Nālāyira Divya Prabandham with Special Reference to Nammalvar, Op. Cit., p.222.
[110]Tondaradippodi Ālvār, Tirumālai, ,
Verse 881, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.336.
[111] A. Ethirajan, Ālvārgal Varalaru, Karaikudi, (Tamil Nadu), Sri Vainava Cithantha
Noorpathipu Kalagam, 1998, p.185.
[112]S. Ramani, “Some Important
Characteristics of the Saiva and the Vaisnava Bhakti Movements of Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka – A Comparative Estimate”. Journal
of Tamil Studies, (No Number), June
1985, p.95.
[113]Tondaradippodi Ālvār, Tirumālai, Verse
878, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.336.
O
Lord in Arangama-nagar! The hate-filled heretics,
Mundas,
and the godless Sakhyas speak irresponsibly
about
you, that itself will be their doom. If
the opportunity
arises,
chopping off their heads right there is the roHá Karma for me.
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.176.]
[115]Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Op. Cit., p.427.
[116]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.192.
[117]Kulaśekhara Ālvār, Perumāl Tirumoli,
Verse 649, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p.260. & Verse 651, p.262.
& Verse 652, p.262.
[119]Bimanbehari Majumdar, “Religion of
Love: The early Medieval Phase
(C.AD 700 – 1486)”, N. N. Bhattacharyya, ed., Medieval
Bhakti Movement in India, [Śrī Caitanya Quincentenary Commemoration Volume],
New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999, p.12.
[120]Pānālvār, Amalanādipirān, Verse 932, [Mudalāyiram], Nālāyiram,
Volume I,
p.354.
[121]S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South India,
Op. Cit., p.81.
[122]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.193.
[124]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1266, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram, Volume I,
p. 130. & Tiruvelukūrrirukkai, Verse 2672,
[Iyarpā], Volume II, p.
220.
[127]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Tiruvelukūrrirukkai, Verse 2672,
[Iyarpā], Volume II, p.
220.
[128]Ibid., Verse 2672, p. 222.
[129]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Tiruneduntāndakam, Verse 2055, [Periya Tirumoli],
Volume I, p. 412.
[130]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Tirukkuruntāndakam, Verse 2037, [Periya Tirumoli],
Volume I, p. 406.
[131]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1456, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 202.
[134]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Tiruneduntāndakam, Verse 2053, [Periya Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 410.
[135]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Tiruvelukūkurrirukkai
Verse 2672, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 222.
“…Tri-murti, O Pair of opposites, O Manifold
one!”
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.719.]
[136]K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India from Prehistoric
Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, Op.
Cit., p.415.
[137]Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Op. Cit., p.371.
[138]Tirumańgai Ālvār,
Tiruvelukūkurrirukkai Verse 2672, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 222.
[139]Tirumańgai Ālvār, Periya Tirumoli, Verse 1826, [Periya
Tirumoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 330.
“There are those who roam the Earth without
shame of fear,
like the peacock-feather-whisking corpse-eating gorgons.
Despising
their ways….”
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.222.]
[150]Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, Op. Cit., p.427.
[151]J. S. M. Hooper, Hymns of the ĀLVĀRS, Op. Cit., p.14.
[152]S. M. Srinivasa
Chari, Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Ālvārs,
Op. Cit., p.23.
[153]Periyālvār, Periyālvār Tirumoli, Verse 360, [Mudalāyiram] Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 144.
[160]Āndāl, Nācciyār Tirumoli, Verse
645, [Mudalāyiram] Nālāyiram,
Volume I,
p. 258.
[161]Āndāl, Tiruppāvai, Verse 493, [Mudalāyiram] Nālāyiram,
Volume I, p. 204.
[162]Āndāl, Nācciyār Tirumoli, Verse
536, [Mudalāyiram] Nālāyiram,
Volume I,
p. 222.
[163]Trivedi Krishnaji, Mahatmas : Acharyas, Mystics, Saints, Sages,
Seers,
Op. Cit., p.70.
[164]K. K. A. Venkatachari, ‘Introduction’
in S. Satyamurthi Ayyangar, Tiruvāymoli,
English Glossary, Volume 2, Bombay, Ananthacharya Indological Research
Institute, 1981, p. XV.
[165]Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 3,
First Indian Edition, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Indological Publishers
& Book Sellers, 1975, p.71.
[166]M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, Op. Cit., p.183.
[168]S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Early History of Vaishnavism in South India,
Op. Cit., p.78.
[169]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse
2945, [Tiruvāymoli], Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.18. & Verse
2946, p.18. & Verse 3023, p.44. & Verse 3023, p.44. & Verse 3124,
p.78. & Verse 3127, p.78. & Tiruviruttam, Verse 2573, [Iyarpā], p.176. & Tiruvāciriyam, Verse
2581, [Iyarpā], p.184. & Periya
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2656, [Iyarpā], p.210.
[170]Nammālvār, Tiruviruttam, Verse 2565, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.172.
[171]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse 3798, [Tiruvāymoli], Nālāyiram,
Volume II,
p.322.
Verse 3315, p. 144. & Verse 3617, p. 254.
[175]Ibid.,
Verse 2906, p. 6.
& Verse 2923, p. 10. & Verse 3337, p. 152. & Verse 3539, p. 224.
& Verse 3622, p. 256. & Verse 3804, p. 326.
Let
each one offer worship as he deems fit, and each one
shall attain his god’s feet. For, our lord, who stands above
these gods accepts the offerings made to them
and bids
them deliver the fruit.
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.438.]
[177]Ibid., Verse 2929, p. 14. & Verse 3022,
p. 44. & Verse 3054, p. 54. & Periya
Tiruvandādi, Verse 2655, [Iyarpā], Nālāyiram,
Volume II, p. 210.
[178]Nammālvār, Tiruvāymoli, Verse
3090, [Tiruvāymoli], Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.
66.
[180]Ibid., Verse 3713, p. 290. & Verse
4000, p. 390.
Look ye, all those who quote the
Linga-purana, Ye Jainas and
Bauddhas! Instead of arguing
endlessly, offer praise to the lord
who stands in Kurugur, where tall ears of paddy sway
gently
in the wind like whisks; he is you and all your gods,
this is no lie.
[Translation from Srirama Bharati, Op. Cit., p.504 -505.]
[183]Nammālvār, Tiruviruttam, Verse 2573, [Iyarpā],
Nālāyiram, Volume II, p.176.
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